INTRODUCTION TO PROOFS

1.7 1.8

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 INTRODUCTION
A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
mathematical statement.

The methods we will study for building proofs are also

used throughout computer science.

Many theorems in mathematics are implications, p → q.

The techniques of proving implications give rise to
different methods of proofs.

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 SOME TERMINOLOGY
A theorem is a statement that can be shown as true.

Less important theorems sometimes are called

propositions (facts or results).

A theorem may be universal quantification of a

conditional statement with one or more premises and a
conclusion.

A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a

theorem.
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 The statements used in proof can include axioms (or
postulates)

A less important theorem that is helpful in the proof of

other results is called a lemma

A corollary is a theorem that can be established directly

from a theorem that has been proved.

A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be

true statement.
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 METHODS OF PROOF

DIRECT PROOF INDIRECT PROOF

p→q

PROOF BY PROOF BY
CONTRAPOSITION CONTRADICTION
p →q ≡ ~q → ~p p →q ≡ (p∧~q) → c

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 DIRECT PROOF
The implication p → q can be proved by showing that if p
is true, the q must also be true.

This shows that the combination p true and q false never

occurs.

A proof of this kind is called a direct proof.

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 SOME BASICS
An integer n is even if, and only if, n = 2k for some
integer k.

An integer n is odd if, and only if, n = 2k + 1 for some

integer k.

An integer n is prime if, and only if, n > 1 and for all
positive integers r and s, if n = r.s, then r = 1 or s = 1.

An integer n > 1 is composite if, and only if, n = r.s for

some positive integers r and s with r ≠ 1 and s ≠ 1.
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 A real number r is rational if, and only if, r = for some
integers a and b with b ≠ 0.

If n and d are integers and d ≠ 0, then d divides n, written

d|n if, and only if, n = d.k for some integers k.

An integer n is called a perfect square, if and only if, n =

k2 for some integer k.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that the sum of two odd integers is even.

PROOF:
Let m and n be two odd integers.
Then by definition of odd numbers
m = 2k + 1 for some k ∈Z
n = 2l + 1 for some l ∈ Z

Now,
m + n = (2k + 1) + (2l + 1)

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 = 2k + 2l + 2
= 2 (k + l + 1)
= 2r
where,
r = (k + l + 1) ∈ Z

Hence m + n is even.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that if n is any even integer, then (-1)n = 1

PROOF:
Suppose n is an even integer.
Then n = 2k for some integer k.
Now
(-1) n = (-1)2k
= [(-1)2]k
= (1)k
=1 (proved)

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 EXERCISE
Prove that the product of an even integer and an odd integer
is even.

PROOF:
Suppose m is an even integer and n is an odd integer. Then,
m = 2k for some integer k
and n = 2l + 1 for some integer l
Now
m.n = 2k . (2l + 1)
= 2.k (2l + 1)
= 2.r where r = k(2l + 1) is an integer
Hence m.n is even. (Proved)

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 EXERCISE
Prove that the square of an even integer is even.

PROOF:
Suppose n is an even integer.
Then n = 2k
Now,
square of n = n2= (2.k)2
= 4k2
= 2.(2k2)
= 2.p where, p = 2k2 ∈ Z
Hence, n2 is even. (proved)

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 EXERCISE
Prove that if n is an odd integer, then n3 + n is even.

PROOF:
Let n be an odd integer,
then
n = 2k + 1 for some k ∈Z
Now,
n3 + n = n (n2 + 1)
= (2k + 1) ((2k+1)2 + 1)
= (2k + 1) (4k2 + 4k + 1 + 1)

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 = (2k + 1) (4k2 + 4k + 2)
= (2k + 1) 2.(2k2 + 2k + 1)
= 2.(2k + 1) (2k2 + 2k + 1) k ∈Z
= an even integer

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 EXERCISE
Prove that, if the sum of any two integers is even, then so
is their difference.

PROOF:
Suppose m and n are integers
So that m + n is even.
Then by definition of even numbers

m + n = 2k for some integer k

⇒ m = 2k - n ……………….(1)

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 Now,
m - n = (2k - n) - n using (1)
= 2k - 2n
= 2(k - n) = 2r
where,
r = k - n is an integer

Hence m - n is even.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that for all integers a, b and c, if a|b and b|c then
a|c.

PROOF:
Suppose a|b and b|c
where a, b, c ∈Z.

Then by definition of divisibility

b=a.r and c=b.s for some integers r and s.

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 Now, c = b.s
= (a.r).s (substituting value of b)
= a.(r.s) (associative law)
= a.k
where,
k = r.s ∈ Z

⇒ a|c by definition of divisibility

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 EXERCISE
Prove that for all integers a, b and c if a|b and a|c then a|(b+c)

PROOF:
Suppose a|b and a|c where a, b, c ∈Z
By definition of divides
b = a.r and c = a.s for some r, s ∈Z
Now
b + c = a.r + a.s (substituting values)
= a.(r+s) (by distributive law)
= a.k
where k = (r + s) ∈Z
Hence a|(b + c) by definition of divides.
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 EXERCISE
Prove that the sum of any three consecutive integers is
divisible by 3.

PROOF:
Let n, n + 1 and n + 2 be three consecutive integers.
Now
n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) = 3n + 3
= 3(n + 1)
= 3k
where k=(n+1)∈Z
Hence, the sum of three consecutive integers is divisible by 3.

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 PROOF BY CONTRADICTION
A proof by contradiction is based on the fact that either a
statement is true or it is false but not both.

Hence the supposition, that the statement to be proved

is false, leads logically to a contradiction, impossibility or
absurdity, then the supposition must be false.

Accordingly, the given statement must be true.

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 Thus to prove an implication p → q by contradiction
method we suppose that the condition p and the negation
of the conclusion q, i.e., (p ∧ ~q) is true and ultimately
arrive at a contradiction.

The method of proof by contradiction, may be

summarized as follows:
Suppose the statement to be proved is false.
Show that this supposition leads logically to a contradiction.
Conclude that the statement to be proved is true.

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 THEOREM
Give a proof by contradiction for the statement:
“If n2 is an even integer then n is an even integer.”

PROOF:
Suppose n2 is an even integer and n is not even, so that n
is odd.
Hence
n = 2k + 1 for some integer k.
Now
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1

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 = 2.(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2r + 1
where
r = (2k2 + 2k) ∈ Z

This shows that n2 is odd, which is a contradiction to our

supposition that n2 is even.

Hence the given statement is true.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that if n is an integer and n3 + 5 is odd, then n is even
using contradiction method.
PROOF:
Suppose that n3 + 5 is odd and n is not even (odd).
Since n is odd and the product of two odd numbers is odd, it
follows that n2 is odd and n3 = n2. n is odd.
Further, since the difference of two odd number is even, it
follows that
= (n3 + 5) - n3
=5 is even.
But this is a contradiction.
Therefore, the supposition that n3 + 5 and n are both odd is
wrong and so the given statement is true.
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 EXERCISE
Prove by contradiction method, the statement: If n and
m are odd integers, then n + m is an even integer.

PROOF:
Suppose n and m are odd and n + m is not even (odd i.e
by taking contradiction).
Now
n = 2p + 1 for some integer p
and
m = 2q + 1 for some integer q

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 Hence
n + m = (2p + 1) + (2q + 1)
= 2p + 2q + 2 = 2· (p + q + 1)

which is even, contradicting the assumption that n + m is

odd.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that is irrational.

PROOF:
Suppose
is rational.
Then there are integers m and n with no common factors
so that

Squaring both sides gives

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 or m2 = 2n2 ………………………(1)
This implies that m2 is even (by definition of even).
It follows that m is even. Hence
m=2k for some integer k…..(2)

Substituting (2) in (1), we get

(2k)2 = 2n2
4k2 = 2n2
n2 = 2k2

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 This implies that n2 is even, and so n is even. But we also
know that m is even.

Hence both m and n have a common factor 2. But this

contradicts the supposition that m and n have no
common factors.

Hence our supposition is false and so the theorem is

true.

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 EXERCISE
Prove by contradiction that is irrational.

PROOF:

Suppose is rational.

Then by definition of rational,

for some integers a and b with b≠0.

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 Now consider,

Since a and b are integers, so are 6b-a and 7b and 7b≠0;

Hence is a quotient of the two integers 6b-a and 7b with
7b≠0.

Accordingly, is rational (by definition of rational).

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 This contradicts the fact because is irrational.

Hence our supposition is false and so is

irrational.

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 PROOF BY CONTRAPOSITION
A proof by contraposition is based on the logical
equivalence between a statement and its contrapositive.

Therefore, the implication p→ q can be proved by

showing that its contrapositive ~ q → ~ p is true.

The contrapositive is usually proved directly.

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 The method of proof by contrapositive may be
summarized as:
Express the statement in the form if p then q.
Rewrite this statement in the contrapositive form
if not q then not p.
Prove the contrapositive by a direct proof.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that for all integers n, if n2 is even then n is even.

PROOF:
The contrapositive of the given statement is:
“if n is not even (odd) then n2 is not even (odd)”

We prove this contrapositive statement directly.

Suppose n is odd.
Then
n = 2k + 1 for some k ∈ Z

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 Now
n2 = (2k+1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2.(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2.r + 1
where,
r = 2k2 + 2k ∈ Z

Hence n2 is odd. Thus the contrapositive statement is

true and so the given statement is true.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that if 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.

PROOF:
The contrapositive of the given conditional statement is
“ if n is even then 3n + 2 is even”

Suppose n is even, then

n = 2k for some k ∈ Z
Now
3n + 2 = 3 (2k) + 2
= 2.(3k + 1)
= 2.r where r = (3k + 1) ∈ Z
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 Hence 3n + 2 is even.

We conclude that the given statement is true since its

contrapositive is true.

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 EXERCISE
Prove that if n2 is not divisible by 25, then n is not
divisible by 5.

PROOF:
The contra-positive statement is:
“if n is divisible by 5, then n2 is divisible by 25”

Suppose n is divisible by 5.
Then by definition of divisibility
n = 5.k for some integer k

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 Squaring both sides

n2 = 25.k2
where
k2 ∈ Z
So,
n2 is divisible by 25

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 EXERCISE
Prove the statement by contraposition:
For all integers m and n, if m + n is even then m and n are
both even or m and n are both odd.

PROOF:
The contrapositive statement is:
“For all integers m and n, if m and n are not both even and m
and n are not both odd, then m + n is not even.”

or more simply,

“For all integers m and n, if one of m and n is even and the

other is odd, then m + n is odd”

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 Suppose m is even and n is odd.
Then,
m = 2p for some integer p
and n = 2q + 1 for some integer q

Now m + n = (2p) + (2q + 1)

= 2.(p+q) + 1
= 2.r + 1
where
r = p+q is an integer

Hence m + n is odd.

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 Similarly, taking m as odd and n even, we again arrive at
the result that m + n is odd.

Thus, the contrapositive statement is true.

Since an implication is logically equivalent to its

contrapositive so the given implication is true.

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