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Mosque architecture and political agenda in twentieth-century Malaysia

Alice Sabrina Ismail, Mohd Tajuddin Mohd Rasdi

Department of Architecture, Faculty of the Built Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Skudai 81310, Johor, Malaysia

In modern social institutions and organisations the production of built form commonly involves the abstraction of societys ideology, power practices and cultural spheres. This is because various hegemonic classes in many instances produce and capitalise particular spatial forms and structures with their own social system which resulted from the practice of power and domination. Based on this understanding, this essay therefore explores how the various perspectives, intentions, associated actions and ideas of political Islam, as propounded by two prominent Malaysian prime ministersTunku Abdul Rahman (19571970) and Tun Mahathir Mohamad (19812003)inuenced the creation of the state mosque between 1955, prior to independence, up to 1998, when the new city of Putrajaya was unveiled to the public. Instead of functioning as communal buildings and places of worship, these state mosques have been exploited for various overtly political ends, in which they are not only employed as the Malaysian governments political instruments but also as a new expression of hegemony and social control in the local context and on the global stage. Introduction
In designing mosques for Muslims in their own specic countries, architects mostly rely on the study of historical precedents and adopt specic typological forms without giving much thought, if any, to the historical forces that surround the buildings. The confusion of what Islamic architecture entails or what mosque architecture should look like or the form it should take is usually attributed to such practices. There is a growing body of knowledge that seeks to reconstruct the idea of Islamic architecture and also that of the mosque which requires the reinterpretation of historical forms within their socio-political contexts. This essay is intended to show how the political intentions of a countrys leader have a strong effect on the
# 2010 The Journal of Architecture

shape of architecture. It focuses on the political agendas of Tunku Abdul Rahman for the Masjid Negara or National Mosque and that of Tun Mahathir for the Putra Mosque. It is hoped that such writing might inspire others to rewrite the whole history of Islamic Architecture so that a more critical search for precedent might make the choices that designers evolve form a truer picture of Islam as a religion with its own value system rather than intertwining it with the questionable political agendas of patrons.

Politics and buildings: architecture for the ruling body

Architecture has been manipulated by ruling bodies throughout history and across the globe particularly
1360-2365 DOI: 10.1080/13602361003791051

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in newly independent countries, for the purposes of: unifying the masses; representing achievement and gaining acknowledgement; mediating forms of political power in order to propagate political ideologies to pluralist society.1 These ruling bodies symbolically make use of the built environment as a tool to exercise their authority, because the physical existence of the built form allows them to declare and to enact their political intentions. This phenomenon has often occurred in many modern states throughout the world as political regimes emerge, since they greatly rely on symbols in the form of architecture, rituals, ceremonies and displays to project the idea of legitimisation. These potential symbols therefore can be drawn upon by ruling parties to assist them in gaining populist support. By arousing the nationalistic emotions of the masses and manoeuvring the populaces sentiments, they aim to maintain their status and position in society.2 This situation applies in the context of Malaysia as built forms such as those of Islamic religious institutions have become part of the ruling authoritys political agenda for this newly independent Muslim country. In order to provide more in-depth understanding of this issue, the following section will rst describe how the Islamic faith acted as a vital political vehicle and potent source contributing to Malaysias social and political growth, including shaping its cultural scene and built environment.

The role of Islam in Malaysias political culture (sixth to twenty-rst centuries)

Malaysia is a country with, at present, twenty-four million people divided into three major races:

Malays, Chinese and Indians. The Malays are predominantly Muslims by faith. The Chinese mostly follow their ancestral religions, but with a growing number of young Christian converts emerging. The Indians are mostly Hindus with a smattering of Christians among them. There are roughly 65% Malays, 26% Chinese, 8% Indians and 1% unlisted ethnic groups in the population.3 Of all the religions in Malaysia, Islam stands out in numbers and in built forms. Although there are numerous Islamic groups that have been identied by scholars as making up the history of Islam in Malaysia, there are three that stand out as ultimately carving an important niche in the countrys political history. They are the traditionalist, the reformist and the modernist. The traditionalist Islamic ideology evolved within the Kaum Tua group. The group was comprised of traditional religious scholars and was the product of the Muslim rural village pondok school. Instead of rethinking Islam in terms of contemporary situations and demands, this Kaum Tua group attempted to reassert and maintain a traditional concept of Islamic faith based on the sharia or Islamic law and was not willing to assimilate worldly matters with religion. Its doctrines and belief system, however, were widely shared by traditional Malay political elites in the royal court circles in each state.4 In the long run, this traditionalist group was also responsible for the emergence of other important dakwah (proselytising) movements in the country: the Jamaat Tabligh and Arqam groups. These two dominant dakwah groups, which proliferated in the mid-twentieth century, professed a similar kind of Islamic ideology to the traditionalist group as outlined above: they

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also introduced their own Islamic doctrine and belief system. The reformist Islamic ideology, on the other hand, was created by a new group of Malays with a different political experience, intellectual tradition and religious belief system. It was rst introduced by the Kaum Muda, during the early nineteenth century, who were mostly comprised of literate and expatriate religious Arab elites, Jawi Peranakan, an elite group from the mid-nineteenth century British-Malay community, descendants of marriages between Indian Muslim men and Malay women, and Malays from the Indonesian ascendancy. Their ideology was continued by a new breed of Malay intellectual educated in the Sultan Idris Training College for Malay Teachers in the early twentieth century and inuenced by the writings and journals produced by the Kaum Muda. For these new thinkers, Islam not only had to be freed from innovations (bida), but it also had to engage in a new cycle of interpretation (ijtihad) in order to cope with, and to adopt, modern science and technology. In the context of Malaysia, this reformist group not only spread its Islamic ideas to the populace but also helped to spark a nationalistic spirit which emphasised the political mobilisation of the Malay community.5 It initiated the establishment of a radical Malay political organisation, known as the MNPthe Malay Nationalist Partythat was opposed to colonialist rule and to the role of Malay rulers during the colonial period.6 Its adherents were also the founders of the rst Islamic political party in Malaysia known as the PMIP (changing its name to PAS in the 1970s) and in the long run were responsible for the emergence of other Islamic organisations such as the Malay Islamic

Youth Organisation (ABIM) which strove to consolidate Islams position in the country. The modernist Islamic ideology, however, is the most important stream of thought which contributed to the shaping of the present political scene and of Islamic practice in the country, particularly among the ruling elites. Unlike the traditionalist and reformist groups, the modernists approached Islam in a different way. They tended to bring the religious thought, life and culture of Muslim society into harmony with the present age by blending Western civilisation and ideas with Islamic doctrines. This modernist ideology was introduced by Malays of royal and aristocratic birth, educated in Malay residential schools such as the Malay College Kuala Kangsar (the Malay Eton) that adopted the English public school education system. These ruling-class Malays were trained to become Malayan Civil Servants (MCS) in the British government service. Under this British government scheme, a new Malay leadership group increasingly inuenced by Western ideas of government and social organisation emerged from local society. Regardless of their inherited social status, this new breed of traditional elite retained and regained their political inuence and authority in the countrys administrative system due to their strong relationship and connection with the colonial personnel. The combination of these factors resulted in the establishment of pro-British Malay administrators from traditional Malay elites who in the long run contributed to a new dimension of political ideas for future Malay politics and for Islam. They founded the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO), which was the dominant ruling party in Malaysia

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during the post-independence period, its leaders consisting mostly of Malay royalty and people of aristocratic birth with Western education and training: examples of the latter were Onn Jaafar, Tunku Abdul Rahman, Tun Abdul Razak and Tun Hussein Onn. Their allegiance to the West was not only conned to their administration of the country, but apparently also inuenced their religious beliefs and cultural practices, such as secularism.7 Although it may be argued that Tun Mahathir did not receive his political training from the colonial system like previous prime ministers, he nevertheless was still much inuenced by the UMNOs party model of thinking which was embedded with the Islamic modernist strand, that was somehow prone to secularism.8 Nevertheless, it was the radicalism of the dakwah movement led by the Malay Islamic Youth Association (ABIM), Darul Arqam and PAS that further accelerated the Islamic religion into Malay society and politics, by bringing Islam to the foreground of political debate in Malaysia during the postindependence period. The dakwah movement forced the federal government under UMNO to change its political course, to become more receptive towards Islam for the sake of political popularity and survival. In this case, UMNOs view towards Islam seemed to hold on to the political form of compromise and pluralism where its Islamic principles keep changing according to time and place, since the partys main objective was to achieve success, popularity, legitimacy and power control.9 This situation in time becomes a ritual tradition in the UMNO party where the interpretation towards Islam was merely professed in a moderate manner, being assumed as a symbolic and cultural

rite rather than practising it as a way of life (addeen) in the conduct of public affairs.10 This is seen after the Malaysian constitution came into force on 27th August, 1957, making Islam the ofcial state religion for the entire federation as stated under Article 3(i) of the Federal Constitution. Despite having a Sultan and Paramount Ruler as head of Islam for the states, the federal government still assumed responsibilities for Islam in every state. It adopted some drastic measures to provide compulsory religious instruction in schools, to forbid any form of media broadcasting that contradicted Islamic belief and to regulate new Islamic dietary laws that prohibited consumption of un-halal products in public. In addition, it actively promoted the conversion of non-Muslims to Islam and restricted non-Muslim missionaries. The federal government also established a centralised body known as BAHEIS in 1968 (presently referred to as JAKIM), as a division of the Prime Ministers Department, to plan, coordinate, manage and monitor all Islamic affairs in the country. In relation to this, the federal government, led by UMNO, also instituted a number of policies designed to promote Islam, within an ethos of prot-making and wealth creation, by erecting many religious institutions throughout the country such as mosques, suraus, Islamic universities, banks, research centres and missionary foundations, and by fostering publications of Islamic literature, the proclamation of a dakwah month and implementation of Islamic values in society, international and national Islamic conferences, a Quran reading competition and so on. In other words, while the Malaysian government wraps itself in the institutions of democracy, the

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UMNO ruling party retains authoritarian practices in a less visible guise through its regulation of the Islamic religion and its development in the country in physical form by the erection of monuments, including places of worship such as mosques. This is important not only to preserve and safeguard UMNOs position from the intrusion of non-Malays into its prerogative rights in the country but also to compete with the opposition party in guaranteeing progress and modernisation for the masses. The UMNOs leaders utilised Islam as a political tool to legitimise their political authority, to counteract the retrogressive dakwah movement, to anchor the idea of Malay identity, to safeguard Malay paramountcy in the countrys political sphere and to legitimate the nature of the countrys development by means of built form. To aid understanding the nature of this process, the next stage of discussion will examine how political ideas of Islam such as those propagated by UMNO leaders, Tunku and Tun Mahathir, are manifested in the design of the Malaysian state mosque. This third phase of the discussion is important not only in helping to consolidate the hypothesis that the political ideas of Islam inuenced the designs of these two state mosques in Malaysia, but it also describes how their architectural attributes and properties symbolise the political ideology of Malaysian leaders by reading the state mosque at a connotative level. Both of the state mosques and the leaders political ideas will be discussed in turn. What is revealed is that the nature of the built form as a sign complements the style of the political leader in power at the time of its design and construction.

The National Mosque and Tunku Abdul Rahmans vision of Islam

The National Mosque (Fig. 1), which stands diagonally opposite the Central Railway Station on thirteen acres of low, at land along Sultan Hishamuddin Road, embodies a unique design which not only reected Tunkus Islamic political ideas but also played a real part in expressing and consolidating the idea of national identity. This was because during the early stage of Tunku Abdul Rahmans administration (1957 1970) he faced various internal issues, particularly the disintegration of a plural society and racial disharmony in which the country was divided into mutually opposed groups due to the previous colonial policy of divide and rule .11 The formation of the Islamic opposition party (PAS) in the early 1950s indirectly divided the Malay Muslim group in the country due to its inuence on Malay society. As a result, Malays were split within the individual states since they placed their loyalty and afliation to this Islamic party and its movement instead of to the ruling national government. In order to promote social harmony and to evoke nationalistic sentiment, particularly among Malay Muslims, Tunkus political strategy was to focus strongly on the development of national identity and Islamic religion as the basic criteria of nation building and was primarily dened and implemented in the public sphere, including the countrys built environment. This was not only because works of architecture can constitute meaningful symbols, able to consolidate a societys self-identication and loyalty to a

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Figure 1. National Mosque in Kuala Lumpur, completed 1965. The design reects Malaysian national identity and the political Islamic ideology of Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaysias rst prime minister. (Photograph by Alice Ismail, Kuala Lumpur.)

particular state and government, but because the consolidation of a national identity, particularly in post-colonial states, typically occurs along religious lines. In other words, the religion of the majority group is commonly included as an integral part of the nation-building process since it is easy to dene and is generally accepted. Thus religion tends to be used by political leaders who wish to represent national identity in order to evoke nationalistic feelings. To project the National Mosque as having national characteristics, its design displayed the culture of the dominant ethnic group in the country and featured the design of the Malay traditional house mixed with Islamic elements. According to its architect, Hisham Albakri, the roof for the mosque is redesigned and reinvented to echo the shape of the parasol which was the traditional emblem of Malay royalty, to produce a unique roof form for the National Mosque.12 He added that the 18 spokes of the main roof at the main prayer hall also symbolize the unity of the 13 states in the country and the 5 pillars of Islam. 13

The National Mosque also displayed a distinct design feature, referencing the design form of the traditional Malay house, the use of a post and beam structure raised on concrete stilts with a large and open verandah area to preserve the privacy of the interior section. The proclamation of national identity was also manifested by the scale of traditional domestic architecture being inated into this place of worship, reinstating Malay prototypes as living practice. There are no other mosques to date in Malaysia designed with stilts or that have a large verandah space under the parasol roof: By expressing the image of national identity this mosque would help to elevate the populace above ethnic interests, particularly the majority group towards a positive nationalism.14 Tunkus political idea how to unify Malay Muslims was also evident in the function of the National Mosque: in order to promote Muslim brotherhood and unity, the mosque was created to provide for a communal function and to promote social integration. It corresponded to the design concept of a communal mosque which merges and integrates into the social fabric. Tunku considered that the National Mosque should be erected not just to be a national monument symbolising a newly independent state, but should also serve as a communal building, accessible to all Muslim people, rich or poor alike. In one of his articles, For The Progress of Our Independence, Tunku expressed his concern for the planning of the Mosque when he noted that the poor had also to be attended to, so when planning the building of the National Mosque, accommodation and amenities for weary travellers who could not afford to stay in hotels

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and lodging houses, had to be provided.15 During the inauguration of the National Mosque, Tunku stated in his speech that the purpose of this mosque is not only to function as a place for prayer, but it is also a centre for educational and communal activities. Therefore this mosque is equipped with various facilities such as libraries and classrooms . . .. . . This mosque will become a symbol of Muslim unity for the country. 16. In that regard, the Mosque was sited in a highdensity townscape site open to the public, where it blends in with the surrounding context. Even though there were objections by the organising committee and critics at rst regarding a ravine that existed between two major roads in the area, Tunku was adamant about constructing the mosque on this particular site. In an interview, Hisham Albakri, the Mosques architect stated that the chosen location was personally suggested by Tunku as he wanted the mosque to be easily accessible. Apart from this, Tunku also insisted on a mosque that could be fully utilised by the public and not be a decorative monumental structure just to be admired from afar.17 To fulll Tunkus request, the central organising committee therefore had to overcome two problems on the site. First, the proposed site had to be lled in using excavated soil from the Merdeka Stadium and secondly, the site had to be extended through the acquisition of the adjacent land. In this process, private land-owners were approached and after agreeing to the terms offered by the government, they were accordingly compensated and moved to a new area. Existing buildings surrounding the site such as the Gallowary Club, the Railway Station, the council ofce and the

masonry construction organisations building were demolished to make way for the project.18 The choice of site appears to have been successful since the Mosque is strategically located near public community areas and facilities, and to government ofces. Since it is built with no boundary walls and has multiple access points for pedestrians as well as vehicular trafc from all directions, it attracts continuous gatherings of large crowds and worshippers even during public holidays. The building has become a focal point for ofce workers from nearby areas to perform their religious duty, especially Friday prayers, and urban residents are involved in communal programmes such as educational, social, economic, welfare and judicial activities. The spatial organisation of the Mosque also contributes to it functioning as a symbolic representation of the idea of unity. The planning layout designed by the architects according to the brief outlined by Tunku portrays various choices of pathways, entry points, transverse nodes, and is dened by multiple connections of spatial segments. As a result, the ow of movement within the spaces from various entry points is not constricted and a lower level of control of movement within the segments of spaces is achieved. This kind of spatial arrangement within the building maximises circulation for the user: thus high social interaction exists within the main spaces such as the prayer hall, open courtyards and verandah areas. In addition, Tunku preferred a building that would retain a direct relationship with the environment and would not be so overwhelming that it dominated the existing context. This was because the main

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function of the building was to accommodate the needs of the populace. The Mosque therefore has a sense of place and takes into account the spirit of place and time having been designed in proportionate scale, inside and out. The overall building form is not arranged in an hierarchical manner with an extensive base or large-scale tapered roof to cover the main prayer hall. The architect was also instructed by Tunku to create a building unique to its place which at the same time did not suggest dominance or prominence. In carrying out the wishes of the state commission to build a structure for the use of the people, the Mosque thus was presented in a modest manner in order for it to be easily appreciated and admired by all with numerous features that add to its attractiveness such as smooth and glossy wall surfaces, a free-standing self-contained block with asymmetrical elevations, level skylines, low-height ceilings, a projecting concrete roof slab, a cantilevered verandah that stands on concrete columnar supports and simply designed ornaments in the form of patterned screens of grilles made of cast stone and concrete. The mosques architect, Hisham Albakri, stated that it is always my objective to be an advocate when talking to non-architects or laymen to convince them of the philosophical appreciation of architecture as different from talking about property development, the building industry and the commercialism of buildings. The term architecture appreciation is used to promote the idea that architecture can be enjoyed as much as performing or visual arts, physically through the senses. Architecture appreciation like music appreciation or like art

appreciation is learned. In music, it is learning to hear. In art it is how to see. But in architecture, it is learning how to perceive.19 As a result of these perceptions, therefore, in Bakris Mosque no perceptual weight, monumental ambience or massive appearance exists within the overall composition that indirectly prompts emotion signifying or verifying authority or supremacy. The facade treatment highlights the existence of horizontal lines created by plinths, oor beams and the verandah cantilevered from the main building, elements which break the verticality of the height and lower the scale of the mosque from the exterior. Tunku was also keen to present his ruling government and party, UMNO, as uniquely concerned with Islamic development in a country promoting Islam combined with material wealth, progress and the future of the Malay Muslim society. He hoped that by promoting a trend towards progressive Islam and by upholding modernised building development, with religious institutions in particular as its main priority, he would gain growing acknowledgement, recognition and acceptance from the local populace together with global observers and particularly those from other Muslim nations. This was important for his administration since, as a newly independent state, Malaysia needed to position itself and to be on an equal level with other well-developed nations in order to achieve recognition economically, politically and socially. As described by Vale, the challenge for developing countries is to nd a balance between cultural selfdetermination and international modernity.20 In accordance with this vision, the erection of national monuments such as the Mosque became a tangible

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symbol of progress for Islamic development and Malaysias success. This is because public buildings may indirectly promote national pride by bringing national recognition. As explained by Vale, the built environment is closely related to the political structure of the state, which may help to demonstrate the developing countrys ability to equal the West in its own terms.21 In this case, the National Mosque was designed to ag up the idea of modernisation in that it was built using the latest available technology and contemporary materials. An example is that it has a folded plate concrete roof. This kind of long-span roof design was the rst in the country using the latest available technology at the time. Thus, alongside assertions concerning the expression of Islamic identity with local traditional forms, the National Mosque was also created to present a modern appearance to highlight Tunkus political ideas concerning modernisation and progress. Holistically, Tunkus political intentions are clearly manifested in the design of the National Mosque whereby it not only symbolises the idea of unity among the Muslim populace and the countrys progress, but also evokes nationalistic sentiments among the masses through representing an image of national identity.

The Putra Mosque and Tun Mahathirs vision of Islam

Unveiled in the nal decade of the twentieth century, the Putra Mosque, the brainchild of the fourth prime minister, Tun Mahathir Mohamad (1981 2003), is a complete antithesis to the National Mosque. Amidst great praise by the tamed mass media and cutting criticism from oppo-

sition parties and academics, the new city pushed its way into Malaysias history as a prime example of authoritarian decree clothed in a rhetorical idea of democracy. The design was highly secret to the extent that the larger portion of debate and opinion surfaced only after construction had proceeded more than half way. While the National Mosque sits as a relaxed a-symmetrical mass within a tight periphery at the edge of Kuala Lumpur, the Putra Mosque in contrast rises up in a grand fashion, sitting majestically in the centre of the shiny new city of Putrajaya (Fig.2). The development of Islam under the leadership of Tun Mahathir was a major expansion compared with Tunkus administrations. Tun Mahathirs Islamic intentions and approaches were well addressed and dened. As a result, his Islamic agenda not only reformed the countrys social structure and restructured the entire government machinery, but also intensied the identication of UMNO with Islam and the majority ethnic group in the country. His political ideas concerning Islam were to project Malaysia as the centre of Islamic civilisationone that was successful in every developmental aspect and balanced between religious and worldly concernsand to show that Malay Muslim society under the leadership of UMNO was a well-advanced community capable of competing with other ethnicities. Accordingly, the Putra Mosque was designed in reference to the past history of Islamic glory. Looking to past civilisation is important since by establishing a connection with specic historical cultures it can create a picturesque and prominent architectural effect which benets the present political context. Al-Assad, an Islamic scholar in mosque

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Figure 2. The Putra Mosque in Putrajaya, completed 1999. The concept arose from the overall development of the Putrajaya city master plan, which included a landmark building that could become a symbolic representation of the new administrative city and of the Islamic religion in Malaysia. (Photograph by Alice Ismail, Kuala Lumpur.)

architecture explains that the return to the past be it architectural or not, holds an important level of signicance. . ..to many Muslims, the Islamic past is a romanticized one, which is idealized and exclusively associated with greatness and splendor.22 This is also important, as a sense of reected glory may be derived from adopting the style of a conspicuously victorious power, synonymous with efciency, valour and success. Haque adds that Tun Mahathir often used the example of a past golden age of Islam as a major reference for Muslims to follow since that period showed remarkable advances in the cultural, intellectual and scientic elds.23 This was commonly propagated in his political speeches where Tun Mahathir repeatedly stated that the present Muslim ummah should regain the past greatness of Islamic civilisation in order for Malaysia to advance in various elds and to be able to compete with other races, whilst remaining in the context of the achievements of humanity in the present time.

. . .once upon a time, the Muslim civilization was highly respected. Muslims were economically wealthy and very learned in all elds, in the sciences and mathematics, in navigation and astronomy, in engineering and in construction. Muslim countries were united under one caliph and were powerful.24 With Tun Mahathirs political intentions being to revive the past glory of Islam, the designer of the Putra Mosque was urged to adopt the Persian (Iranian) style to suit Tun Mahathirs ambition. This was demonstrated during the Putrajaya Central Committee meeting on the 22nd of February 1995, when Tun Mahathir outlined his intent and preference that the architectural features of the new administrative city should possess an Islamic design character with references to traditional Islamic cities, such as Isfahan in Iran, and to Persian Islamic architecture of the Safayid period. The choosing of Persian architectural features is also due to historical evidence, as many experts believe the period of Persian architecture from the 15th through 17th centuries to be the most brilliant of the Islamic era.25 Even though the Persian past was not closely related to Malaysian history, it was still effective in legitimising Tun Mahathirs Islamic ideas in society. By recalling the Persians, the Malaysian government associated itself with a history of power, victories and achievements, since Iran was one of the cradles of civilisation. For that reason, references to the glory of the Islamic heritage of the past, particularly the Persian, can be seen in the design features of the Mosque: how it is sited, its dome, minaret and main entrance. This is because these design features act as icons which

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can be translated immediately by the viewer. The dome of the Putra Mosque is similar to the domes of Iranian mosques: it is faced with mosaic to create a resplendent view, with its massive vertical height and round base. The dome is also double layered, the interior part intricately decorated to simulate the celestial dome, reminding Muslims of mans place in the cosmos vis a vis God and creation. The main entrance is modelled on the gateways to public buildings found in Muslim Persia with an appearance of grandeur and a pointed arch. The Putra Mosque gateway, however, is not intricately faced with cornices and oral tiles on the front and rear as in Persian examples, but is made of rose-tinted granite, offset by brown-stained cengal woodwork and Quranic verses engraved on stone with a greyish background. But, as with the positioning of gateways to the Shah and Sheikh Loft Allah mosques in the city of Isfahan, the Putra Mosques main gateway is tilted 45 degrees from the open square (maidan) in order to achieve the correct orientation of the Qibla wall and to give access to the open paved courtyard (sahn) in front of the mosque prayer hall. The design of the minaret was inspired by the Sheikh Omar Mosque in Baghdad, Iraq. The placement of the Putra Mosque in the urban development of the Putrajaya administrative city also resembles the positioning of the Shah and Sheikh Loft Allah mosques in the urban layout of the city of Isfahan. Similarly to the functions of the Shah and Sheikh Loft mosques as magnets to attract the population to the adjacent bazaars in the Shah Abbas maidan, the Putra Mosque also acts as a focal point to draw visitors to the govern-

ment precinct and to the large open plaza (Dataran Putra). This is due to the arrangement of its three main components which are the mosque (Putra Mosque), the administrative building (Putra Perdana) and the premier ofcial residence (Seri Perdana) that converge at one large open square (the Dataran Putra) Putra Square.26 Tun Mahathirs government also relied on fostering a considerable degree of Islamic progress in order to demonstrate his political legitimacy in Malaysia. To contribute to this, the Putra Mosque was constructed using the latest modern technology and contemporary materials. An example was the roof structure: it employed the rst dome construction technology in Malaysia and used a glass bre fabric combined with epoxy resin composite shell panels that are lightweight, stronger and more durable than conventional dome elements. The mosques external walls were made from high-quality materials nished with a rose-tinted granite-chip textured coating. This kind of material creates shades of pink and rose on its surfaces. Sudjic explains that colours are an important signal for built form, as they may indirectly provide functional alibis and signalling clues that dene status or act as symbol of identity markers.27 In the case of the Putra Mosque, the choice of these colours was intended to showcase it as a distinct, outstanding and unique structure, in particular contrasting with the customary monotonous tints of other mosques found in Malaysia. Such adaptation of new technology reects that landmark buildings such as the Putra Mosque raised the standard of dome and building construction to a higher level in Malaysia.28

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In order to present his government and UMNO as the sole Malay party capable of securing the future development of Malay Muslim society and of safeguarding Islams position in the country, unlike opposition parties such as PASwhich, according to Tun Mahathir, was only concerned with form, attire and spiritual adherence instead of modernisationthe Putra Mosque, as a prominent Islamic symbol with its setting in the context of the city, embodied these political intentions. The Putra Mosque is placed in the government precinct and sits beside the Prime Ministers ofce. This kind of placement metaphorically shows that a strong bond exists between Tun Mahathirs government and the Islamic institutions in Malaysia.29 Interestingly, the Putra Mosque, along with three other buildings in this administrative city (the Prime Ministers Ofce, the Prime Ministers Residence and the Federal Supreme Court), all have domes as roof structures. This implies that Malaysias identity for its a new administrative city is closely tied to the Islamic beliefs of its Malay citizenry and to the status of the ruling government: This symbolically portrays that the law, Islamic religion and the prime minister as the ruler of the country are closely interrelated.30 As stated by King, the symbolism of the Putra Mosque architecture links it to the PM and Islam.31 King also adds that the imagery is inseparable from the ambiguity of the UMNO political agenda to be more Islamically practical than the strident, fundamentalist leaning and ever threatening Islamist opposition.32 In this connection, the Putra Mosque had a special meaning complementing the grander political agenda of Tun Mahathirs

government: to demonstrate that his brand of Islam was much more practical since his emphasis was on advancement as contrasted to the beliefs of opposition groups. He also attached great importance to gaining recognition for this from the local populace and from a global audience to demonstrate that Malaysia was viewed as a Muslim country that was developing well. In order to become a well-known Malay Muslim leader on the local stage and the international scene, particularly among other leaders in Muslim countries, he used building development as a tool to project his political intentions and ambitions. His aim was to cover Malaysia with monuments and mega-development projects in order to represent the spectacular achievements of his political leadership. What was particularly important to Tun Mahathir was not who should design the building but rather that the monumental structural form it took should surpass all existing architectural expressions elsewhere in the world. The political scientists Milne and Mauzy studied Tun Mahathirs politics, policies and personality and explained that Tun Mahathir has been a builder, but some of his constructions were designed not just to be serviceable or to meet economic needs, but to impress, or even embody some aesthetic aspirations.33 They added that he could be described as an idiosyncratic person within an idiosyncratic context. . .He is happiest when dealing with the world of objects, constructions and gadgets. . ..His interest is greater if they are huge or fast, or both.34 Rehman Rashid of the New Straits Times wrote that under Tun Mahathir, it was more about quantity like the number of tall buildings.35

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KS Jomo, a University of Malaya economist, wrote that Tun Mahathir has a pharaonic side to him,. . .These are the modern pyramidsthe biggest this, the tallest that.36 In Tun Mahathirs 1999 speech during the Opening Ceremony of the Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur, he stated that: When the government decided to proceed with the so-called mega projects there was more than one dimension of tangible and intangible benets to be realised. There is no denial that large projects, by virtue of their size alone will bring attention to this nation, the rst step towards telling the world of our existence. It is thereby evident that his main political ambition was to mark Malaysia as the beacon of emerging nations. In addition to his towers and monuments, the Putra Mosque is also considered as one of his greatest edices intended to represent his Islamic stance emphasising material progress. In regard to his ambitious development plans, the Putra Mosque was consciously designed as an identiable structure which can be viewed from miles away because of its massive and monumental scale. The building is 76.2 metres high from the tip of the roof to oor level. It is also twice the size of the other mosque, at about 32,400 square metres. Moreover, the ratio between base, wall and roof of the Putra Mosque stands at 1.8: 37.5: 46.2 metres: four times greater than the other mosque. It presents a distinct form in an open space placed on a man-made platform situated in the Putrajaya Lake and it dominates the site with its outstanding vertical elements such as the minaret and the large dome which are 116 metres and 46.2 metres in height respectively. The exterior facades are

elaborately treated with articulated vertical elements such as wide openings, pointed archshaped colonnades and mini-domes arranged in a symmetrical and hierarchical manner from the base, wall to roof level. The interior facades are also equally articulated in a lavish manner with distinct decorative features of calligraphic writings, geometrical patterns and oral motifs at all subordinate levels from its structural elements, walls to ceiling level. These architectural features of the mosque, such as columns and beams present within the interior layout, are massive in size with a lavish and striking appearance. The resultant impression is awesome. As a result, it attracts the audiences attention and announces the presence of the countrys leader, as the building patron in the local and global context.37 As noted by Kirch, monumental architecture came to play a signicant role as visual symbol of chiey hegemony and dominance because it is tied to the vision of projecting the achievements of the leader, especially in the eyes of the communities.38 Tun Mahathirs political interest also was to carve a niche for himself, by portraying and enhancing his image as a powerful Malay Muslim leader among its populace.39 His autocratic and authoritarian political leadership is also manifested in the design of the Mosque. In this case, the built form features the use of a single directional axis as a public access point to the building in which this single access is fully guarded by the Mosque authorities. This restrictive entry point thus projects a controllable access for the public to the Mosque. This kind of access does not seem successful in presenting

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the built form as an open and inviting place for communal assemblage. Apart from this, there is also the placing of the entrance on the northern side which faces the promenade that directly links to the Prime Ministers ofce. This implies that preferential treatment is given to the Prime Minister as the main user, instead of the public. Thus the symbolism of this Mosque in terms of approach and access indicates that strong associations exist between Tun Mahathir, as the Mosques patron, with Islam and with his political stature as the countrys leader. It is clearly demonstrated that the Mosque is an expression of hegemony, conveying his political power and position in relation to the subject populace. The Mosque is also bounded by a massive wall, thus resembling a fortress: an uninviting impression as the structure seems secluded and does not evoke any sense of a strong visual relationship with its surroundings. Furthermore, its spatial organisation offers few choices of entrance for the public, due to restricted transverse points and limited looping pathways. As a result, it produces lower social interaction within the major spaces of the building. This constricted and restricted ow of movement within the inner areas also results in highly controlled movement within the spatial divisions. This approach to spatial arrangement symbolically suggests that Tun Mahathir, as the Mosques patron, intended to assert his political authority manifested through the built form instead of treating the Mosque as a public and communal space: This is so as Tun Mahathir as a political leader had a distinctive taste for grandiose, expensive, prestigious and honoric projects as he

thought this to be good for the ego of a developing nation.40

Conclusion
Thus Malaysian leaders have utilised the state mosque as an ideological space for the propagation of their Islamist thinking. The construction of these state mosques is seen therefore as an extension of the leaders political manipulation in which the mosques physical attributes (scale, setting, access, spatial organisation, facade treatment and struc tural arrangement) provide a way of viewing the representation of these leaders political ideologies. It is also clear that the mosques in question adopted the latest available technology as well as contemporary materials in order to establish a degree of legitimacy and authority for these leaders in two main ways. First, they feature a signicant incorporation of contemporary architectural vocabularies to symbolise Malaysias progress. By projecting Malaysia as a well-developed and modernised Muslim country, the ruling leaders hope to gain recognition from the populace at all levels, particularly within the nations of the Muslim world. Secondly, these mosques have modernised design features and are treated as a political instrument which symbolises the supremacy of the ruling body in order to legitimise its position as the ruling government in the country as well as to maintain a permanency of rule for the leaders as part of the leading Malay Muslim party (UMNO) in Malay Muslim society. The designs of these two state mosques have signicant political meaning and express high communicative value as the representatives of Islamic faith.

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This is because these structures are the visual translations of intentions provided by inuential patrons in the Malaysian context. From the study, it is obvious that these political leaders, who represent the ruling government and the UMNO party, are perceived as secularist modernisers of the nationstate. They not only treat Islam as an overriding force to display their credentials to the masses to win their support but also seek Islamic legitimisation through material progress and development in the form of nation building. Their involvement can be viewed in the construction of religious institutions which are consistently represented in impressive structures primarily characterised by overwhelming size, signicant location and the appropriation of design appearance referring to Western and Islamic historical models. From the progressive and relaxed expression of the National Mosque to the imperial grandeur of the Putra Mosque, each building also shows that these two prominent leaders have moved to utilise the mosque as a political symbol and a means of expanding and consolidating their authority in the Malaysian context. In this sense, the visible presence of state mosques built by the government not only sheds light on the characteristics of Muslim society in the Malaysian context but through them, the dynamic of Malaysian politics can be ascertained and the creation process of the identity of the Malaysian state can be discerned. Hence, in dealing with such an important subject as Islamic architecture, or specically mosque architecture, one does well to understand that political idealism and social values are closely tied to architecture.

Notes and references

1. V. J. Lawrence, Architecture, Power and National Identity (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1992), pp.2224. 2. C. William, Architecture and Authority In Japan (New York, International Thomson Publishing Company, 1996), pp.24 26. 3. General Report of the Population and Housing Census 2007 (Putrajaya, Department of Statistics, Malaysia, 2005), pp.60 64. 4. A. Abdul Rahman, Pemikiran Islam di Malaysia: Sejarah dan Aliran (Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1998), pp.124 126. 5. W. M. Watt, Islamic Fundamentalism and Modernity (London and New York, Routledge, 1998), pp.56 58. 6. A. Firdaus, Radical Malay Politics: Its Origin and Early Development (Petaling Jaya, Pelanduk Publications, 1985), pp.86 89. 7. Ibid. 8. A. Ahmad, Issues in Malaysian Politics, in Occasional Paper Series, 7 (Singapore, Heinemann Asia, 1988), p.187. 9. F. N. John, Malay Politics In Malaysia: A Study of The United Malays National Organization and Party Islam (Kuala Lumpur, Heinemann, 1980), p.137. 10. T. Khoo Boo, Mahathir Mohamad : A Critical Study of Ideology, Biography and Society in Malaysian Politics (Unpublished PhD Thesis, Flinders University Of South Australia, 1984), p.162. 11. G. Clifford, The Integrative Revolution: Primordial Sentiments and Civil Politics In The New States, in The Interpretation of Cultures (New York, Basic Books, 1973), p.252. 12. JKR, Working Files of the National Mosque (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia National Archive, 1959), Public Works Department, File No B/JKR/KL 7. 13. Badan Warisan (the Malaysian Heritage Body), An Interview With the Late Hisham Albakri, in, C. Diana, ed., Badan Warisan (Kuala Lumpur, Badan Warisan, 2006), p.3.

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14. M.Crinson, Modern Architecture and the End of Empire (United Kingdom, Ashgate Publishing, 2003), p.159. 15. T. A. Rahman, The Progress After Our Independence Lest We Forget: Further Candid Reminiscence (Kuala Lumpur, Eastern University Press, 1983), p.112. 16. Berita Harian, Keluaran Edisi Khas Pembukaan Masjid Negara August (Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia National Archive, 1965), p.2. 17. Badan Warisan, op.cit., p.3. 18. Dewan Masyarakat, Masjid Negara, in, Abu Yazid Abidin, ed., Dewan Masyarakat (Kuala Lumpur, Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, 1965), p.5. 19. Badan Warisan, op.cit., p.5. 20. V. J. Lawrence, op.cit., p.53. 21. Ibid., p.54. 22. Mohamad Al-Assad, The Modern State Mosque In The Eastern Arab World: 1828 1985 (Unpublished PhD Thesis, Harvard University, USA, 1990), p.205. 23. S.M. Haque, Muslim Identity In The Speeches of Mahathir Mohamad, Intellectual Discourse, 12 (2):190 (2004), p.190. 24. M. Mohamad, Islam Knowledge and Other Affairs (Kuala Lumpur, MPH Group Publishing, 2006), p.121. 25. T. Grigor, Framing Modernit(ies):American Historians of Iranian Architecture, Journal of the Southeast Chapter of the Society of Architectural Historians (September,2004), pp.38 54. 26. Z. Zakaria, Putrajaya (Kuala Lumpur, Impiana Publications Sdn Bhd, 2005), p.27. 27. Deyan Sudjic, The Edice Complex (Allen Lane, Penguin Books Ltd, 2005), p.125. 28. Putrajaya Holdings, The Making of Putrajaya: The Developers Perspective 1995-2002 (Kuala Lumpur, Putrajaya Holdings Sdn Bhd, 2003), p.167.

29. R. King, Re-writing the City: Putrajaya as Representation, Journal of Urban Design, 12 (1) (2007), p.131. 30. R. Marshall, The Making Of Malaysian Capital Putrajaya and The Multimedia Super Corridor, Kuala Lumpur, in Emerging Urbanity: Global Urban Projects In The Asia Pacic Rim (New York, Spon Press, 2003), p.182. 31. R. King, op.cit., p.131. 32. Ibid., p.134. 33. R.S.Milne, D.K. Mauzy, Malaysia, Tradition, Modernity and Islam (USA, Westview Press, 1986), p.67. 34. Ibid., p.183 35. A.Netto, Badawi Dashes Hopes for Press Freedom, in The Irrawady (Burma and South East Asia, 2004; retrieved on 28.08.05). http://www.irrawaddy.org/ art/ 36. M.L. Clifford, Can Malaysia Take the Next Big Step?, in International Economics Business Week (McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, 1996; retrieved on 29.04.06) http://www.businessweek.com/1996/09/ b3464109.htm/ 37. A. Huyssen, Monumental Seduction, New German Critique, 69 (Autumn, 1996), p.191. 38. P. Kirch, Monumental Architecture and Power in Polynesian Chiefdoms: A Comparison of Tonga and Hawaii, World Archaeology, 22(2) (1990), p.217. 39. R.S.Milne, D.K. Mauzy, The Mahathir Administration In Malaysia: Discipline Through Islam, Pacic Affairs, 56 (4) (1983), p.84. 40. C.Y. Keong, Behind Malaysias Miracle: A Veblenian Perspective on Mahathirs Era of Economic Modernization, Journal of Economic Issues, 40 (4) (December, 2006), p.862.

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