Advanced Diploma of Electrical Engineering

Module 5: Transformers Module 5.3

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6 Testing of Transformers

6.1

General
There are a number of regional standards that define the functional and testing requirements for power and distribution transformers. Universally the transformer principle is the same comprising two or three windings (Mostly 2) with magnetic core and enclosure tank. For example some of the main standards available for transformers under IEC are as below: IEC- 60076 Power Transformer IEC- 60296 Specification for unused mineral insulating oils for Transformer & Switchgear IEC- 60137 Insulating Bushing for alternating voltage above 1000V. IEC- 60354 Loading Guide for oil immersed power transformer. IEC- 60364 Specification for Gas operated relays IEC- 156 Method for the determination of the electric strength of insulating oils. Some of the British standards for transformers are as below. BS 7806:Dry-type power transformers BS 7821- 4 parts: Three phase oil-immersed distribution transformers, 50 Hz, from 50 to 2500 kVA with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV. BS 7844- 2 parts: Three-phase dry-type distribution transformers 50 Hz, from 100 to 2500 kVA with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV. In North America following IEEE/ ANSI standards are generally adopted. IEEE C57.12.00 - Standard General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and Regulating Transformers

92 Practical Power Transformers

IEEE C57.12.01 - Standard General Requirements for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers ANSI C57.12.22 - Requirements for Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, ThreePhase Distribution Transformers with High Voltage Bushings; 2,500 kVA and Smaller: High Voltage, 34,500 GrdY/19,920 Volts and Below; Low Voltage, 480 Volts and Below Requirements. ANSI C57.12.26 - Standard for Transformers - Pad-Mounted, Compartmental-Type, Self-Cooled, Three-Phase Distribution Transformers for use with Separable Insulated High Voltage Connectors: High Voltage, 34,500 GrdY/19,920 Volts and Below; 2,500 kVA and Smaller. ANSI C57.12.28 - Switchgear and Transformers, Pad-Mounted Equipment - Enclosure Integrity ANSI C57.12.50 - Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Distribution Transformers, 1-500 kVA Single-Phase and 15-500 kVA Three-Phase, with High Voltage 601-34,500 Volts, Low Voltage 120-600 Volts. IEEE C57.12.51 - Requirements for Ventilated Dry-Type Power Transformers, 501 kVA and Larger Three-Phase, with High Voltage 601-34,500 Volts, Low Voltage 208Y/120-4,160 Volts IEEE C57.12.90 - Standard Test Code for Liquid-Immersed Distribution Power, and Regulating Transformers and Guide for Short-Circuit Testing of Distribution and Power Transformers (ANSI). IEEE C57.12.91 - Test Code for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers ASTM D877 - Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage of Insulating Liquids Using Disk Electrodes. These standards not just define the standard construction requirements but mainly indicate the acceptance criterion for a transformer before putting a transformer for a particular service application, mainly relating to the testing of transformers at manufacturers works or in an approved laboratory. This is done to ensure that they meet the specific needs of an application. The tests are broadly classified as: Routine tests Type tests Special tests

Further, like any standard electrical equipment, transformers are tested on-site before commissioning, which may be classified as: Pre-commissioning tests. Periodical maintenance tests

This chapter briefly covers the requirements laid down by international standards and best practices followed in industry for transformers before accepting for an application (routine and type tests) and before putting into service (pre-commissioning tests). Maintenance related tests are covered in a separate chapter.

6.2

Routine tests
The quality of transformers depends on successfully verifying the performance of components that go into it. A manufacturer is expected to ensure that the following checks and tests are conducted before/during assembly:

Testing of Transformers 93

a) Quality checks and tests on all bought-out components/parts like laminations, conductors, protection devices, oil, insulation materials, bushings, etc. b) Tests on individual items like tanks, windings, control panels, etc. being built at the works The above test reports do not normally form a part of completed transformers. But in the interest of quality, it is necessary to ensure that the manufacturer is in possession of all pertinent records. The tests (on major parts of a transformer) are covered separately towards the end of this chapter. Once the transformer is fully assembled, the following routine tests are recommended. These tests are to be normally carried out in the presence of the customer at a manufacturers works. Hence it is expected that the manufacturers factory includes a well-equipped testing division. a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) n) Visual inspection Measurement of winding resistance Measurement of voltage/turns ratio Verification of polarity and vector group Measurement of impedance voltage and load losses Measurement of no load losses and no load current Measurement of insulation resistance Power frequency voltage withstand test Induced voltage withstand test RIV Corona Voltage test (Above 132 kV) Partial Discharge measurements (300 kV and above) Lightning impulse test (For above 132 kV) Switching impulse voltage withstand test (For above 132 kV) Tests on OLTC

6.2.1 Visual inspection

The visual inspection is not only to check the finish of the equipment but also to cover Verification of dimensions. Critical dimensions like foundation rails, busduct termination level, etc., shall be as per approved drawings (for smooth and fast installation). Provision of all accessories as per the bill of materials and specification, including the check on ratings of various auxiliary devices like sudden pressure relay, etc., which need an external source for operation. To assist in achieving undisputed test results, these accessories shall be assembled at the works during testing. Incorporation of all necessary particulars in the nameplate with serial number, etc., matching with duty requirements.

6.2.2 Winding resistance measurements

The purpose of this test to establish the copper losses which is basically I2R losses in the winding varying with load. Measurement of winding resistance is done across the terminals through balanced bridge (Wheatstone Bridge or Kelvin Bridge) configurations. Sufficient time shall be given to ensure that the resistance reaches a steady state value, which happens once the core saturates with a DC voltage. Time taken may be longer if the winding inductance is higher. Also

94 Practical Power Transformers

it is to be ensured that the windings are not unduly in hot condition when resistance measurements are taken. It shall be noted that three-phase transformers will have the terminals connected in Star or Delta and accordingly the measurements will give net parallel resistance values as per configurations. For example with A, B, C, N as terminals and with connection in Star, the resistance across A-B will give the total resistances of AN and BN. In Delta connections two windings will be in series and parallel to the third winding across which the measurement is taken. The main point is to ensure that the values are uniform and the copper losses are within the guaranteed figures. The readings are to be taken across all two terminals of the transformer to check the uniformity. In case there is some non-uniformity, it could be due to some open winding or loose connections, which are to be thoroughly checked and rectified.

6.2.3 Turns ratio measurement

The measurement of turns ratio is done by applying nominal voltage across the terminals of the primary and measuring the open circuit secondary voltage across its terminals. The expectation is that the turns ratio shall be the same as the voltage ratio. The ratio is measured between the primary winding to the full secondary end with tap position at 0 and also by changing to the other taps of the primary winding, which are available outside for external connections (Figure 6.1). The acceptance criterion is that the turns ratio shall have a tolerance of not exceeding 0.5% of the required voltage ratio. Generally 380/415/480 V 3-phase supply which is commonly available is applied to the HV windings of the transformer for this purpose (in case of three-phase transformers and may be lesser voltage for single-phase ones).

Figure 6.1 Transformer Ratio Checking instrument

6.2.4 Polarity and vector group check

The polarity and vector group verification is another important test required to ensure that the secondary voltage displacements are as per specifications so that the connected protective devices operate correctly. Figure 6.2 illustrates the testing connections and method to determine the polarity of a transformer.

Testing of Transformers 95

The connections basically require interconnecting the phase terminals of primary and secondary windings, applying voltage to one set of winding and measuring the voltage across the various terminals caused by the induction phenomenon. As is evident from the diagrams, if the voltage measured across A1-A2 is less than the voltage measured across A1-a2 then the polarity is said to be subtractive, and if it is greater, then the polarity is additive.

Figure 6.2 Test connections for determining single-phase transformer winding polarity

Figure 6.3 illustrates the test connections for a three-phase star-star connected transformer with subtractive polarity and the result verifies that the vector group matches with the requirement. The voltage measured across C2-A2 and C2-B2 must be equal and shall be more than the measurements between C2 -c2 and B2 - b2. Further the voltage across C2 -b2 must be more than C2c2 and similar result is to be checked between B2-c2 and B2-b2.

96 Practical Power Transformers

Figure 6.3 Test connections for determining three-phase transformer winding polarity

6.2.5 Measurement of impedance voltage and load losses

The load losses in a transformer basically comprise of I2R losses in the windings and the stray losses due to the eddy currents in conductors, clamp and tank. Since stray loss is frequency dependent, the test frequency shall be the rated frequency. Normally the guaranteed figures are for an operating temperature of 75C. Corrections will be applied to the losses measured at ambient temperature in the works. The principle is that the impedance voltage is to be applied to the primary to get the full rated current to flow in the short circuited secondary winding. Although the standards do not say that 100% secondary current is to be flown, it is recommended to get not less than 50% of rated secondary current during this test by applying a reduced voltage on the HV winding. Then,

Rated Current Losses at rated current = Measured loss at test current Test Current
Percentage Impedance =
Test Voltage Rated Voltage

Rated Current Test Current

100

Since the power factor during these measurements could be very low (less than 0.1), watt meters suitable for such low power factor shall be considered. Further three watt meter method is preferred compared to two watt meter method to avoid large multiplication constant.

6.2.6 No load losses and current measurement

The no load test not only establishes the no load losses but also indicates the soundness of insulation after HV tests. Hence normally no load losses are taken before and after the HV tests to ensure that the windings did not suffer any damage due to HV tests.

Testing of Transformers 97

No load test is conducted by feeding the voltage to the LV winding at rated frequency. The core loss consists of eddy current losses and hysteresis losses. The eddy current value is dependent on rms value of supply voltage while hysteresis loss depends on the average value of voltage. Two voltmeters are used with a bridge rectifier type to indicate the average value and a dynamometer type to indicate rms value. The actual loss, P, is given by:
P= P m P + KP 1 2

Where

Pm is the measured no load loss P1 being the fraction of hysteresis loss to the total iron loss (0.5 for grain oriented steel and 0.7 for non-grain oriented steel) P2 being the fraction of eddy current loss to the total iron loss (0.5 for grain oriented steel and 0.3 for non-grain oriented steel)
RMS voltage K= 1.11 Average Voltage 2

And

6.2.7 Insulation resistance tests

The insulation resistance tests are carried out between phases to ground, neutral to ground, primary to secondary with 500 V/1000 V/2000 V/5000 V meggers depending upon the voltage ratings. The insulation resistance values shall be in hundreds of megaohms to ensure proper insulation. These tests are conducted before and after high voltage tests to ensure integrity of the insulation after HV tests. Though there is no standard value for these insulation resistance values, based on experience and temperature conditions some standard acceptable values are applied to verify the soundness of the insulation. If the test results give reduced values, it is preferable to take up some improvement methods like drying out, etc., before the transformer is accepted. Table 6.1 gives typical acceptable values.
Table 6.1

IR values for transformers

Rated Voltage kV 66 kV and above 22 / 33 kV 6.6/11 kV Below 6.6 kV

Safe IR values in Mega ohms at applicable ambient temperatures 30 C 40 C 50 C 60 C 600 300 150 75 500 250 125 65 400 200 100 50 200 100 50 25

6.2.8 Dielectric Tests

Normally, dielectric tests (applied voltage and induced voltage) shall be conducted after the lightning impulse and switching impulse tests, if they are applicable (for EHV windings) or if the customers specifications demand these impulse tests. Other wise it can be conducted as a routine. The power frequency voltage is normally applied for one minute, where its magnitude is almost 2.5 times the standard voltage and depending upon the grounding method, applied to the neutral.

98 Practical Power Transformers

These are called power frequency withstand voltage and have been covered earlier in this book (Table 4.2). The line terminals of the windings under test are connected together and test voltage is applied to these terminals with the other windings and tank connected to the ground. The application of test voltage is for one minute. The induced potential voltage test is basically to check the inter turn insulation and the main insulation between the windings and ground. The test voltage is twice the rated voltage of the winding with uniformly insulated windings. For graded insulation windings (Adopted for 66KV and above generally) the test voltage is about 1.5 times the nameplate voltage. For higher voltages it is usual to raise each V terminal in turn by applying single phase voltage to the LV winding. The neutral terminal may be raised to a higher potential to get at least twice the normal voltage per turn of the tested winding. The duration is 60 seconds for upto twice the rated frequency. However in order to avoid core saturation, the test frequency is chosen at higher value of around 150 to 240 Hz with the time of application reduced suitably as below.
Test Duration in seconds = K Rated frequency Test Frequency

The value of K may be 100 or 120 depending on whether it is a 50 Hz or 60 Hz rated transformer (with a minimum duration of 15 seconds).

6.2.9 RIV corona measurements

For transformers rated above 132 kV, the RIV corona voltage measurements are taken by applying the potential for one-hour. A rating of 1.7 times the normal voltage is applied for 2 minutes and then reduced to 1.5 times and maintained for one hour. Radio Interference Voltages (RIV) are measured 5 minutes after the voltage is reduced to 1.5 times. The readings are taken at 5 minute intervals during this one hour. The RIV readings at any moment in time and at any terminal shall not exceed 100 V with readings not differing by more that 20 V. If the values/differences are exceeding these values, the tests shall be repeated until the transformer can match these figures.

6.2.10 Partial discharge measurements

For voltage ratings 220 kV and above, the partial discharge measurements are also taken during this one-hour test. The partial discharge test is basically to check the possible discharges in the cavities of solid insulation and in gas bubbles in the liquid insulation or along the dielectric surfaces. The partial discharge can result due to the following conditions. Improper insulation drying / process High stress areas caused by sharp edges in the conductors.

This test requires special circuits to measure the partial discharges while applying a higher voltage for a considerable duration. Typically the transformer phase and neutral is applied 1.3 times the rated phase to neutral voltage value for 5 minutes and raised to 1.5 times the rated phase to neutral voltage value for 5 seconds and again continuing with 1.3 times the voltage for 30 minutes. During this entire sequence the partial discharge shall not exceed 300 pC at 1.3 times voltage and shall be within 500pC during the short 5 seconds while applying 1.5 times the voltage (Figure 6.4).

Testing of Transformers 99

Figure 6.4 PD testing calibration

The current AS (NZ) Standard 2374.3-1982 requires Pd testing only on 330 kV transformers and above. However, Pd testing has for many years been found to be an excellent quality control tool such that the tests were performed as early as 1982 even on some 33 kV transformers. Moreover, the permissible partial discharge levels were often reduced in purchasing specifications below that mandated by the standard so that relatively small irregularities can be detected. Many such irregularities were detected (see Figure 6.5), examples being: rust and copper slivers contamination of windings un-earthed steel bolts, etc. low oil in bushings copper cable cut-offs inadvertently dropped onto windings

Figure 6.5 (a) Irregularities detected by PD testing

100 Practical Power Transformers

Figure 6.5 (b) Irregularities detected by PD testing

In other cases again, Pd testing could have prevented a transformer failure in service due to welding rod remnants dropped onto the windings, had it only been performed on re-energizing after repair. The latest IEC standard 60076.3-2005 does recognize the value of the tests more and prescribes it for transformers > 72.5 kV. It combines the test with the induced voltage test and specifically calls for two different types, namely a short duration test (ACSD) lasting 20 min and a long duration test (ACLD) lasting 75 min according to a prescribed voltage profile. The critical period is always the one following extreme test voltage application at the induced voltage level, because if the discharge inception level has been exceeded, then it will be necessary that those discharges will also extinguish. Special attention is required with transformers having graded insulation because in such cases only single phase tests can normally be performed. The critical issues to be searched for are that the discharges will not exceed the limit value and further that they will not have a rising tendency during the test. State-of-the-art equipment enables all terminals to be tested and recorded simultaneously, which permit very good failure location by comparison the discharges at the various terminals (Figure 6.6). Where bushing condenser taps are not available, suitable blocking capacitors are used instead, refer to images.

Testing of Transformers 101

Figure 6.6 Modern PD testing result screen

6.2.11 Impulse tests

The lightning impulse voltage magnitude is as per the table 4.2 earlier and normally conducted on EHV transformers as routine tests. The duration of the impulse is 1.2/50 sec. One application of a reduced voltage (50 to 70% of the table values) is done after which two lightning impulses of the applicable values are applied to the terminal of the transformer. As a special test, chopped wave tests are often prescribed, aimed to simulate spark gaps and external flashovers across the porcelains. Dependent on the applicable standard, the value of chopped waves is 100 to 110% of the full wave values. The wave shape is similar except that the voltage is collapsed to zero after 2-8 sec. The standard sequence for chopped impulse application is: One reduced full impulse One 100% full impulse One reduced chopped impulse Two 100% chopped impulses Two 100% full impulses

The switching impulse test is similar to the lightning impulse test with one reduced full wave (75%) and two full waves of the rated impulse magnitude.

102 Practical Power Transformers

6.2.12 Tests on OLTC

The tests on OLTC normally consist of checking proper operation of motors, the sequence of tap changing, manual controls, etc.

6.3

Type tests
Following are the type tests which are optional and carried out on units if the client specifies the same. Normally these are conducted at additional cost: a) b) c) d) Temperature rise test Lightning impulse test (for below 132 kV) Switching impulse test (for below 132 kV) Partial Discharge test (for below 300 kV)

The temperature rise test basically comprises of allowing a full current load to be passed through the windings until the thermometer readings reach steady state values. The source is normally a low voltage, high current one. After the steady state temperature is reached the transformer will start cooling thereby changing the winding resistance value. The change in resistance value is taken to find the thermal constant of the transformer windings and to interpolate the rise in winding temperature. The normal duration of a temperature rise test may be about 10 hours and increasing to one day for large capacity transformers. Though this is a type test, the temperature rise within the agreed limits will give a clear condition of the transformer under service conditions. Different cooling modes are normally to be tested separately. On large or important transformers a test at up to 1.5 times continuous maximum rating is often specified and is then carried out for a period of some 2-10 hours to prove compliance with AS/IEC. This is done subject to a maximum hot-spot temperature of 1201400C and the performance checked by analysing the oil for dissolved gases (DGA) afterwards

6.4

Special tests
Special tests are normally carried out only if required for performance checks. The following special tests are to be carried out if specified in the contract: a) b) c) d) e) Measurement of zero sequence impedance Short circuit test Sound level measurements Measurement of harmonics at no load Measurement of auxiliary power by fans and pumps

6.4.1 Measurement of zero sequence impedance

This test is carried out for star connected transformers with earthed neutral to determine the fault current value during phase to earth faults. The type of core (whether 5 limb or 3 limb) also has an effect on the value, since the reluctance paths are different in the two types. A five limb construction may have above 90% to 100% value of positive sequence impedance as zero sequence impedance, while a 3 limb construction value could be 80 to 90% of the positive sequence impedance.

Testing of Transformers 103

The three terminals of the star winding are connected and a voltage is applied between these terminals to neutral with the Delta winding left floating. Zero sequence impedance value in ohms is equal to three times V/I where V is the single phase voltage applied and I being the resultant current.

6.4.2 Short circuit tests

The short circuit test is normally a destructive test and to be carried out on an identically designed transformer. The transformer shall pass all the routine tests before taken up for short circuit test. The symmetrical short circuit is calculated using the measured impedance value plus the system impedance. Short circuit test requires three shots on each phase at each tap, which means 9 shots are required for three phase transformers with shots at normal tap, minimum tap and maximum tap. The transformer is supposed to have passed the test if: No faults result internally during the tests Dielectric tests are successfully repeated. No visual defects on windings, supports and tank structure. No traces of electric discharges. Reactance measurements after the tests are within 2% of the actual value after each shot for category 1 and within 1% for category 3 and the category 2 transformer reactance within a variation between 1% to 2%. (Refer to Section 6.5 for categories per IEC)

Figure 6.7 Winding after short circuit test

6.4.3 Other special tests

Sound levels have been tested over many years. A change introduced some years ago still causes confusion with some practitioners, namely the sound pressure versus sound power concept. Tests are conventionally performed with the sound level meter, which of course measures sound pressure in dBA. Whilst there are some refinements dependent on the cooling mode and the geometry, it may suffice for this workshop to know that the sound power (also stated in dBA), is

104 Practical Power Transformers

simply the product of the sound pressure measurements and the radiating surface area. A formula involving logarithms as for all evaluations relating to sound level is contained in the standards. Complications and refinements to this principle have arisen more frequently with more and more importance paid to this aspect of performance because of residential noise pollution. Firstly, a more sensitive test in the form of sound intensity measurements is thus possible and used sometimes, especially where the sound power levels are in the order of 70 dBA. Whilst its results are easily verifiable by simple arithmetic, the volume of data and the testing technique are such that only a computerized output is normally useful. Another aspect is that of sound under load. The conventional sound is the result of magnetostriction of the core plates and a direct function of flux density in the core. Windings also have a sound, which depends on the amount of current flowing through them. Indeed, windings move under load and that sound of winding vibration can be rather significant. It is ascertained during load loss testing or temperature rise testing. A formula is provided in the standards to adjust for the appropriate level of current and to permit combining the two sound levels of core and windings to produce just one figure as the guarantee. The noise level is an environmental issue and is necessary where transformer noise may become objectionable. The loss measurements for auxiliary pumps and fans depend upon the cooling method used for the transformers.

6.4.4 Frequency response analysis

This test is frequently performed on completion of manufacture so that a base characteristic is available for measurements in later years. Typical occasions for repeat testing would be on transporting the transformer to a new location, after a line short circuit and at any other time when winding looseness is suspected. The frequency band over which the tests are mainly performed fall into two categories where below some 10-20 kHz, deficiencies with the core may be deduced (Figure 6.8). Note however that there is a difference in the behavior of the center leg compared with the outside legs. The next frequency range would extend up until some 2 MHz and that provides an indication of winding performance. Beyond that frequency, the stray capacitances are predominant such that no reasonable conclusion can be deduced. The image has been included because it shows a rather limited winding damage near one of the line leads.

Testing of Transformers 105

Figure 6.8 (a) Frequency Response Results

Figure 6.8 (b) Frequency Response Results

106 Practical Power Transformers

6.5 Transformer standards

The voltage levels considered in the IEC and ANSI standards are normally different because of the basic change in the operating voltages prevailing in the regions where these standards are applied. This gives rise to differences in test voltages and BILs for transformers considered in these standards. A brief comparison of major points between IEC and ANSI standards for transformers is given below. This basically covers operating conditions, and guaranteed performance which are of interest to manufacturers and end users. The two standards commonly used for transformer requirements are IEC 76 and IEEE/ANSI C57 in the respective regions and this section compares the recommendations laid out in these standards.

6.5.1 Standard service conditions

The capacity of a transformer is defined in kVA and the rated kVA of a transformer is its ability to meet a particular kVA load without exceeding the pre-defined oil temperature rise and winding temperature rise over ambient temperature. This basic capacity is defined for specific altitude and ambient temperature conditions. In case of altitude both the standards refer to the standard height of 1000 m (3300 ft) above sea level for the standard capacity of a transformer and changes beyond these minimum values will result in de-rating of transformer capacity. While IEC puts the feet figure inside brackets, ANSI considers the meters inside brackets. Both the standards give de-rating factors beyond this altitude, which are comparable. On the supply voltage front both standards accept a basic 5% harmonic content. IEC specifies that the transformer deliver rated capacity at 105% of the rated voltage and ANSI also specifies the same 5% increase in rated voltage. For water-cooled transformers, IEC stipulates an inlet water temperature not exceeding 25C while ANSI defines both instantaneous and average inlet temperatures. The figure is not to exceed 30 C normally and an average of 25 C over a 24-hour period. For air-cooled transformers IEC specifies a temperature not exceeding 40C. ANSI also stipulates this value as the maximum with an average temperature of 30C over a 24-hour period.

6.5.2 Transformer capacity and categories

The transformer rating as per IEC basically refers input power at rated primary voltage whereas as per ANSI, it is the output power at the rated secondary voltage. IEC specifies the transformer categories based on the capacity as below: CAT 1 Upto 3150 kVA CAT 2 3151- 40000 kVA CAT 3 Above 40000 kVA ANSI specifies the transformer categories based on single-phase and three-phase capacities. The categories are broadly classified as below: Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 Category 4 15-500 kVA for 3-phase and 1-500 kVA for 1-phase 501-5000 kVA for 3-phase and upto 1667 kVA for 1-phase 5001-30000 kVA for 3-phase and 16681000 kVA for 1-phase is beyond the above capacities.

Testing of Transformers 107

IEC does not categorize the transformers based on voltage. However as per ANSI, Class 1 power transformers are upto 69 kV while Class 2 power transformers are for voltages between 115 and 765 kV.

6.5.3

Transformer impedance values

Another important parameter for a transformer is its impedance. IEC indicates recommended/typical values of impedances based on the capacity of a transformer. ANSI figures are based on the HV BIL, LV Voltage and whether it is with an on-load tap changer or not. Following is the comparison of the figures in the two standards.
Table 6.2

Comparison of standard impedance values

IEC Typical impedances Rated KVA %Z Upto 630 631-1250 1251-3150 3151-6300 6301-12500 12501-25000 250001200000 4.0% 5.0% 6.25% 7.15% 8.35% 10.0% 12.5%

HV BIL 60-110 150 200 250 350 450 550 650 750

ANSI C57 Values Without OLTC With OLTC LV LV LV >2400 V 420V >2400 V ---5.5 5.75 7.0 6.5 6.75 7.5 7.0 7.25 8.0 7.5 7.75 8.5 8.0 --9.0 8.5 --9.5 9.0 --10.0 9.5 --10.5 10.0 ---

6.5.4

Cooling classification
Liquid filled transformers are defined based on the cooling methods. Natural cooling is termed as ONAN. Adding Fans for forced air-cooling will make the transformer ONAN/ONAF. Where forced liquid cooling is employed the transformer capacity is specified for ONAN/ONAF/OFAF conditions. In case of ANSI/IEEE, these are termed as OA, OA/FA and OA/FA/FOA respectively. Aircooled transformers have similar classifications. AN in IEC refers to self-cooling while ANSI indicates it as AA. The forced air-cooling in the two standards is AF and AFA respectively. To AS/IEC, a further cooling mode variation to OFAF is frequently used, namely ODAF. With that cooling mode, oil is not just forced into the transformer but also through the windings. Where that cooling mode is employed and is proven by special oil guiding components, a winding temperature rise of 70C is permissible in lieu of 65C.

6.5.5 Temperature rise

The insulation classes in IEC are defined with an alphabet whereas ANSI refers to the same by the value of temperature. The winding temperature rises for dry transformers are to be limited as below based on insulation class. It can be noted that IEC refers to the maximum temperature rise, while ANSI refers to average temperature rise over a 24-hour period. Table 6.3 highlights the comparative features of the two standards for the temperature rise.

108 Practical Power Transformers Table 6.3

Acceptable temperature rise of windings

IEC Class A (105) E (120) B (130) F (155) H (185) C (220) Max temp rise in C 65 75 80 100 125 150 Class 130 150 185 200 220

ANSI C57 Average temp rise in C 60 80 115 130 150

6.5.6

Guaranteed figures
Manufacturers normally guarantee the losses and impedance values subject to some tolerance. In case of IEC, the tolerance levels specified are marginally higher compared to ANSI. In case of impedance values IEC specifies an acceptable tolerance of 7.5% for more than 10% Z and 10 % for less than 10% Z. ANSI specifies 7.5% tolerance for dry type. In case of liquidfilled type the tolerance is 7.5% if IZ > 2.5% and 10% for IZ < 2.5%. Referring to the losses, IEC specifies the tolerance of +10% for total losses. But IEC allows +15% tolerance on individual components like no-load and load loss provided the +10% overall loss tolerance is not exceeded. On the other hand, ANSI is stricter with a figure of +6% for total losses with a +10% tolerance for component losses. In regard to the voltage ratio, both the standards allow a tolerance of +0.5%. Specifications also contain almost always a method whereby the loss-performance is included in tender evaluations such that load and no-load losses multiplied by the specified rates ($/kW) are added to the tender price for the purpose of tender evaluation. If the guaranteed losses should be exceeded on test, corresponding liquidated damages are generally levied.

6.5.7

Test values
Because of the varying voltage levels, the respective standards identify the lightning impulse and power frequency based on the applicable ratings/categories in tabular form. Generally IEC levels are marginally (around 10%) lower compared to ANSI values for these figures. Routine tests and type tests are almost the same in both standards but their applicability differs. For example, Lightning impulse test, which is a type test per IEC is a routine test for ANSI class 2 power transformers. At the same time ANSI does not consider the resistance test, impedance and load loss measurement tests as routine tests for transformers rated 500 kVA and below.

6.5.8 General
Both standards identify specific details to be furnished in the respective transformers. The standards also list out the standard accessories, which are not so different.

Testing of Transformers 109

In general it may be noted that the standards do not differ much and normally a transformer tested in one standard may be able to provide the same kind of service like the transformer manufactured and/or tested to the other standard.

6.6

Tests on parts

6.6.1 Transformer tank

A vacuum test is conducted on the tank before it is accepted for assembly. The vacuum to be applied varies based on the oil capacity and voltage requirements. After full assembly a full pressure test may be carried out to check the integrity of the tank and the cooling system.

6.6.2 Transformer bushings

Though the transformer bushings are tested at the sub vendors works some of the tests may be repeated to check integrity. Normally bushing tests are repeated for EHV bushings, which are condenser types. Power factor test or Tan test is basically carried out to check the deterioration and contamination of bushings. The voltage is applied in steps upto the rated voltage and capacitance and tan delta values are recorded for each voltage. Using Schering Bridge. Increase in capacitance and tan delta values over a period of time indicates the deterioration of the bushing characteristics. The RIV test is done basically to determine the corona discharges in bushings at the rated operating voltage (which lowers its performance and life). Oil type bushings are normally tested for moisture content similar to other transformers. The other tests include power frequency voltage withstand test, switching impulse tests, partial discharge test, etc., to test the integrity of the bushings.

6.7

Transformer oil tests

Transformer oil is normally a bought out item and hence is kept in inventory at transformer manufacturing facilities. Normally the transformer supplier produces the test report for the oil received in batches from the original manufacturer. However, it is a standard routine test to check the dielectric strength of the transformer oil by taking an average of multiple readings along with the other routine tests performed on the transformer. The acceptable value for transformers in test bed is 60KV rms. The condition and safe operation of a transformer can be verified by testing the oil. This section describes the various tests normally done on the transformer oil. Following paragraphs outline the recommended tests on transformer oil and their importance, acceptable values, etc. Typical acceptable values for the various tests are reproduced (from Chapter 4) for immediate reference. 11~16.5 mm2/sec 140C -21C (Very cold climates demand 60C) 0.03 mgKOH/g

Viscosity at 40C Minimum flash point Maximum pour point Maximum Neutralisation value

110 Practical Power Transformers

Maximum acidity Maximum water content Min. Electric strength Dielectric dissipation Factor

0.4 mgKOH/g 35 ppm 30 kV 0.005 (max)

6.7.1 Dielectric Test

This test basically adopts applying a voltage across two spherical electrodes separated by a gap of 2.5 mm (0.1 inch) with oil in between the electrodes. The acceptable flashover voltage across the electrodes is around 30 kV, though new oil gives a value as high as 80 kV. This voltage is termed as the break down voltage (BDV) of the oil being used. Lower values of voltage indicate the presence of contaminating agents like moisture, fibrous materials, carbon particles, sludges, sediments, etc. and filtration is necessary to remove these contaminants and to increase BDV. Figure 6.9 illustrates how the transformer oil dielectric strength is affected by the impurities and foreign matters present.

11 Dielectric Strength (kV/mm) 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Particles per 100 ml of Oil Dry Fibres Wet Fibres Metal Particles

Figure 6.9 (a) Oil Dielectric strength changing with contents

Testing of Transformers 111

100 Dielectric Breakdown Voltage, % 80 60 40 20 0 0 20

Oil w ith 60 micron fibres, approx. 50 g/t Filtered Oil, approx. 20 g/t particles 40 60 80 100

Relative Hum idity of Oil, %

Figure 6.9 (b) Oil Dielectric strength changing with contents

6.7.2 Acid neutralization number

This basically checks the oxidation characteristic of the oil and identifies the extent of free organic and inorganic acids present in the oil. The oil in service gets oxidation not only because of contact with atmospheric air but also because of the large amount of copper present in the transformer. Acids formed due to these effects give rise to sludge, which precipitate out and deposit on the windings and other parts of the transformer, affecting oil circulation and transformer performance. The acids can also deteriorate the cellulose insulation. The test measures the quantity of base component that is required to neutralize the acidic contents present in the oil. The test comprises of mixing the known amount of oil sample with a base compound (Potassium hydroxide - KOH) until the indicator solution turns bright pink at a specific pH. The neutralization number is expressed in terms of amount of KOH in mg that takes to neutralize the acid in one gram of oil. i.e. in mg KOH/gm. Though the minimum specified is 0.03, the acceptable value under operating conditions can go upto 0.05 mg KOH/gm and values of more than 0.1 being totally unacceptable. The difficulty in performing this test may be detecting the color change in slightly darkish oil.

6.7.3 Interfacial tension test

This test measures the tension between the oil and water content in terms of dynes per cm or millinewton per meter. It indirectly gives the degree of sludge in the transformer oil. The surface tension of clean pure water is strong enough to hold a carefully placed small needle to remain above water without sinking. Adding detergent to the water reduces the tension and the needle sinks. Normally oil floats on water with a surface tension between a clean oil and clean water being around 50 dynes/cm. The contaminations in the oil decrease this value and an acceptable value is around 30 dynes/cm. The values below 30 dynes/cm are unacceptable and need improvement.

112 Practical Power Transformers

6.7.4 Color
New oil is relatively clear and the change in oil color over a period of service is inspected. The lab test is conducted by comparing a sample of oil to some colour standards and applies to all types of oil including transformer oil. The color is expressed in a numeral value and a value about 3.5 is generally acceptable. If appreciable change in color is noticed (value exceeds 3.5 denoting darker oil), it may indicate the presence of contaminations.

6.7.5 Relative density

The specific gravity of the oil is measured by using a hydrometer. The normal value is around 0.91, which may go to values around 0.85 over a period of time. If the specific gravity is more than 0.91, it could indicate the presence of contaminants. A value lower than 0.84 can indicate the presence of paraffins. However the measurement of specific gravity does not give a true picture, since the accidental mix up of dielectric liquid with lubricants, fuel oil, etc, may also give the values within 0.85 to 0.91, making it difficult to detect whether the oil is free from such lubricants, etc. Further the acceptable value is normally based at a temperature of 29.5C ensures that the water remains as ice at the bottom for temperatures upto 10C.

6.7.6 Dielectric dissipation factor

This factor gives the relative percentage of current that leaks through the oil in a test cell, something similar to the dielectric strength giving the flashover value. The test cell consists of two metal shells with small gap and the gap is filled with the dielectric liquid. Then a test voltage is measured and the leakage current through the oil is measured like a capacitance current. It is preferable to conduct this test at two temperatures: 25C and 100C. This is because lower temperature measurements may not detect the contamination in the oil. New refined oil has a low factor in the range of less than 0.1% at 20C and below 3% at 100C. Respective values exceeding 0.3% and 4% are unacceptable. The above factor is represented by tan for an oil-filled transformer. A similar test is conducted for dry type transformer where the power factor of the winding is measured by passing the current and finding the ratio of watts to VA input. This test is referred to as the power factor test.

6.7.7 Water content

The amount of free and dissolved water is termed as the moisture content and is normally expressed in mg of water/kg of oil (ppm - parts per million). Presence of moisture in oil is harmful because it adversely affects the electrical characteristics of the oil and subsequently accelerates the deterioration of the solid insulation as well. A value beyond 35 ppm is generally unacceptable.

6.7.8 Flash point

The oil normally produces some vapor at higher temperatures. The flash point basically decides the temperature at which the oil releases sufficient quantity of this vapor, which when mixed with air forms an ignitable substance and gives a momentary flash on application of flame under prescribed conditions.

6.7.9 Viscosity
Viscosity is a measure of resistance offered by oil to flow without any external forces. The transformer cooling is achieved by radiators, which in turn depend on the mobility of hot oil at

Testing of Transformers 113

top and relatively cooler oil at bottom. Normally viscosity increases with decreasing temperature and hence the viscosity shall be as low as possible at low temperatures.

6.7.10 Pour point

The lowest temperature at which the oil freely flows is termed as its pour point and below this point the oil becomes too viscous or getting solidified affecting the flow. Cooling of transformer is severely affected below the pour point.

6.7.11 Specific resistance

Resistivity is expressed in ohm-cm, which is numerically equivalent to the resistance between opposite faces of a centimeter cube of liquid. A low resistance value represents the presence of moisture and possible contaminants. Low transformer resistance values also affect the insulation resistance value of the transformer windings.

6.7.12 Dissolved gas analysis

Another important test on transformer oil is to take up a dissolved gas analysis to find the break up of gas contents present in used oil. The generation of gases in oil filled transformers due to sparks and arcs and severe overheating cannot be ruled out. The gases are produced due to chemical reactions during such times. Initially the hydrogen content was an indication for a possible fault within the transformer. However later it was recognized that there are also chances of the presence of hydrocarbons. For low temperature faults, methane and hydrogen are generated. As the temperature of the fault increases, ethane is produced reducing the methane content. Hence the ethane-methane ratio is also an indication of the severity of the fault. At higher temperatures ethylene starts increasing overtaking the ethane content. At still higher temperatures, acetylene is produced and it ultimately becomes predominant. International standards define interpretation of gas analysis results basically giving the severity of the internal faults. Another important test is taking the gas sample evolved through Buchholz relay by catching it in a balloon and analyzing its contents directly. Although both carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide are also present in the oil, it has been recognized that as long as their values remain without much change, there is no reason for concern.

6.7.13

Life expectancy of transformer

The life expectancy of the transformer can be estimated by assessing the deterioration of the paper insulation. Determination of the condition of the paper insulation can be done either by performing Furan analysis or by testing the condition of the kraft paper.
Furan analysis

Furans are a family of chemical compounds that get released and dissolved in the oil when cellulose insulation decomposes due to overheating, oxidation, reactions with acid, moisture and oxygen. Furanic content in oil is a reliable method of estimating the remaining life of the paper insulation. When the furans become greater than 250 parts per billion, it can be judged that paper insulation is getting deteriorated and consequently the life of the transformer is getting reduced at a higher rate. The most important of Furan compounds is 2-furfuraldehyde. In healthy transformers, there are no detectable furans in oil, or they are in negligible quantities. In those cases where deterioration

114 Practical Power Transformers

of paper insulation has taken place, furan levels can be found to be in the range of 100 ppb to 70,000 ppb (ppb - parts per billion). Testing is performed for five different furans caused by different problems. The five furans and their most common causes are as follows. 5H2F (5-hydroxymethyl 1-2-furaldehyde) caused by oxidation (aging and heating of paper insulation 2FOL (2-furfurol) caused by high moisture content in paper 2FAL (2-furaldehyde) caused by overheating of paper 2ACF (2-acetylfuran) caused by lightning (rarely observed in DGA) 5M2F (5-methyl-2-furaldehyde) caused by local severe overheating (hot spots) Table 6.4 gives the relationships between Furans, DP (degree of polymerization) and the estimated percentage of remaining life. However for diagnosing the problem, judgment should not be based only on Furan test. To be on the safe side, dissolved gas analysis should also be performed over a period of time and trending should be done on the results of the DGA analysis.
Table 6.4

Furans, DP and Percent of remaining paper life

55C Rise transformer 2FAL (ppb) 58 130 292 654 1464 1720 2021 2374 2789 3277 3851 4524 5315 6245 7337

65C Rise Transformer Total Furans (ppb) 51 100 195 381 745 852 974 1113 1273 1455 1664 1902 2175 2487 2843

Estimated degree of Polymerization (DP) 800 700 600 500 400 380 360 340 320 300 280 260 240 220 200

Estimated Percentage of Remaining Life 100 90 79 66 50 46 42 38 33 29 24 19 13 7 0

Interpretation

Normal aging rate Accelerated aging rate

Excessive aging rate High rate of failure End of expected life of paper insulation

DP (Degree of Polymerization) test

A reliable method of assessing the deterioration of paper insulation is by performing DP test on the paper. Cellulose molecules are made up of long chains of glucose rings which contribute to the mechanical strength of the molecule and consequently strength of the paper. DP refers to the average number of these rings in the molecule. The length of the molecule gets shortened due to deterioration of cellulose attributable to reasons of heat, oxidation, reactions with moisture, oxygen, etc. The DP value of new insulation is typically between 1000 and 1400. With deterioration of cellulose molecules, the bonds between the rings start disintegrating. When the DP value reaches close to 200, the insulation has reached the end of its life. The insulation becomes brittle due to lack of mechanical strength and can therefore no longer perform its insulating function. The transformer therefore has to be replaced.

Testing of Transformers 115

Insulation paper is tested by taking sample of the paper insulation from the transformer windings. This necessitates opening up the transformer to perform the DP test. Hence it is advisable not to open the transformer only for the purpose of performing the DP test. DP test can be performed when the transformer is opened for some other reason. A sample of paper of approximately 1 cm2 size is removed from a convenient location at the top from the center phase winding with a pair of tweezers. Top of the center phase is chosen for sampling since the insulation at that location is subjected to the hottest condition and therefore is expected to be thermally aged more. The sample should be sent to a laboratory for performing the DP test. The results of the DP test can be analyzed using Table 6.5 which shows the remaining life of the insulation in relation to the DP values.
Table 6.5

DP and percent of remaining paper life (Courtesy EPRI's Guidelines for the Life extension of Substations)

New insulation material 60% to 66% remaining life 30% remaining life Zero remaining life

1000 DP ~ 1400 DP 500 DP 300 DP 200 DP

6.8

On site acceptance tests

In general, transformers are received at a site after all routine tests have been completed and the transformer has successfully withstood all the specified tests. However a transformer is not directly energized and some minimum site tests are to be completed before the transformer is energized or commissioned. These tests are in addition to the pre-commissioning checks covered in detail in the next chapter. Table 6.5 shows the site tests to be taken up and their acceptance criteria.

116 Practical Power Transformers

Table 6.5

Site Test Results and inference

Site Acceptance tests Oil Dielectric breakdown voltage test Insulation Resistance test between windings and windings to earth

Ratio check at normal tap and other taps Winding Resistance Pressure test if transformer is supplied with inert gas. Power factor (DDF) test for above 15KV windings rated above 10 MVA Oil sample test Accessories test

Test criteria and Acceptable values Normally with disc or spherical electrodes having 2.5mm spacing 30 KV minimum acceptable voltage With 1000V DC megger upto 600V, 2500V DC megger between 601 to 5000V and 5000V DC megger above 5001. For oil filled transformers the IR values shall be as below for these three categories. Oil filled: 100 Meg Ohm upto 600V, 1000 Meg Ohm 5000V and 5000 Mega Ohm beyond 5000V. Dry Type: Five times the above figures. Values shall be within 0.5% of the calculated values, same as the factory tests. Cross check for conformance with factory tests. At least 6 pounds pressure for 12 hours minimum and check for any leaks using soap solution around seals and gaskets. Ensure the values are below 0.5% In an approved laboratory and ensure the test values are within acceptable figures given earlier. Ensure proper operation of all accessories, relays, pressure relief device, gauges, etc.

6.9 Recommended transformer field tests and checks

The following are the site tests recommended by National Electrical Testing Association Inc., USA for transformers.

6.9.1 Visual and mechanical inspection

Inspect for physical damage and record, if any. Ensure nameplate information meets latest one line diagram and record discrepancies, if any. Verify proper operation of all auxiliary devices. Check and ensure tightness of bolted joints as per table A-1. Ensure proper level of oil in tank and bushings. Conduct mechanical tests of auxiliary devices like OLTC, etc.

6.9.2 Electrical Tests

a) Insulation Resistance tests to be conducted between windings and windings to ground. Test voltages shall be:

Testing of Transformers 117

150 600 V Rating 501 5000 V Rating Above 5001 V

1000V megger 2500V megger 5000V megger

b) Polarisation index value (10 minutes IR to 1 minute IR) shall be found which shall exceed 1.5 c) Turns ratio test on all tap positions to be found and shall not deviate more than 0.5% of the voltage ratio requirement. d) Power factor test values shall be found and shall not exceed 0.5% for oil filled transformers and shall be within 1.0% for dry transformers. e) Dielectric test results shall comply with the following. Dielectric breakdown voltage 35kV minimum below 69kV, and 30kV minimum for 69 kV upwards. Neutralisation number 0.025 mgKOH/gm maximum. Interfacial tension 35 dynes/cm minimum. Color 1.0 maximum. Winding resistance values shall not exceed 1.0% for adjacent windings and comparable overall. AC High voltage potential test not exceeding 75% of the factory test values.
Table 6.6

Site Over potential test voltages

Nominal voltage

Insulation Class

Factory over potential kV

1.2 2.4 4.8 8.32 14.4 18.0 25.0 34.5 46.0

1.2 2.5 5.0 8.7 15.0 18.0 25.0 34.5 46.0

10 15 19 26 34 40 50 70 95

118 Practical Power Transformers

7 Transformer Installation

7.1

Electrical schemes and plant layouts

It is a standard recommendation that transformers be located very close to major loads for which they are intended. However in an industrial or commercial atmosphere it is not always practical to locate the transformers at the center of the building or plant. Hence, the common acceptable practice is to locate the transformers close to load centers depending on the layout. Considering the size and requirements, the plant may have just one transformer, stepping down from one standard voltage to the operating voltage level. Probably a majority of installations fall under this category. The other possibility is that the plant may be getting a supply at a very high voltage (in the order 110 to 220 kV) and then there could be a network of connections feeding the various load center transformers with capacities and connections depending upon the nature of the industry. The distribution may be ring, main or dual feeder, or radial, but that is only external to the transformers and as such the location of transformers is more often decided by load centers. Typical schemes for a plant can be as shown in Figure 7.1, with the above options.

120 Practical Power Transformers

Figure 7.1

Typical transformer schemes in a plant

The layout of the plant also depends on the size of the plot, layout of various process areas, load center importance, etc. The schemes shown in Figure 7.1 may be practically spread out over a small or vast area, generally in line with Figure 7.2.

Figure 7.2

Typical Layout of plants with transformers

Transformer Installation 121

7.2

Transformer layouts
In designing the layout and installations of transformers, the following are the main factors to be considered: whether Indoor or outdoor ventilation requirements possibilities of fire hazards noise considerations

7.3

Indoor locations
In locating a transformer indoors, decisions on the following are essential: Oil draining facilities Containment during oil drain Requirement of forced ventilation Approach Removal facilities, when required.

It is quite uncommon to have high capacity transformers mounted indoors mainly because of the space limitation, fire hazard conditions, maintainability, etc. Also the transformers with EHV bushings in the order of 66 kV and above are mounted outdoor because of the simplicity in bringing the conductors by overhead lines. The insulated cable connections at these voltages are uneconomical, non-feasible and also pose a lot of limitations in routing large sized cables. Hence it can be presumed that a transformer is normally mounted outdoor if it is having EHV bushings, unless special requirements demand otherwise.

7.3.1 Oil draining and containment

A special foundation is not required for the installation of a transformer indoors, except a level floor strong enough to support the weight and to prevent accumulation of water and provisions to safely drain oil when required. There shall be no water lines or air-conditioning ducts running above transformers, which are prone to water discharges on to the transformer body. Typically, most transformers that are oil-filled present a potential fire hazard. Hence it is absolutely essential to consider this factor while locating the transformer indoors. Though, most oil-filled transformers are therefore installed outdoors, there could be cases where indoor mounting would also be implemented. There is also a general misconception that oil filled transformers are sources of fire hazards. This is usually not the case for most mineral oil filled systems, which are less of a fire hazard than most other equipment. In these transformers, the closed flash point is not lower than 140C and hence it shall not be possible to accumulate sufficient vapor in an enclosed space to be ignited upon exposure to a flame or any other source of ignition, below this temperature. In any case, in order to sustain a flame, these oils require a wick to produce sufficient vapor to burn freely. Usually there has to be a fault occurred prior to a fire that causes the rapid loss of oil through a rupture in the tank. Invariably, there will exist a high temperature, and as the oil is at this point exposed to the atmosphere, ignition will occur and then the transformer insulation will serve as a wick for the oil and sustain combustion. However modern transformers are not easily ruptured but slow leakages are still not ruled out. If on the occurrence of a fault that causes a slow leak or drip of the oil onto a heated surface and if the temperature is high enough to ignite the oil/vapor this fire could be fed continuously by the slow drip or leak. In many instances, this may go unnoticed until it escalates to a serious level.

122 Practical Power Transformers

There are many methods of avoiding or at the very least minimizing the risk of such hazards. Conventionally, it has been a general practice in many substations that employ oil filled transformers and switchgear, to provide surfaces of chipping and a drainage sump to transport away any oil spillage that could potentially fuel a fire. This method however is not foolproof. It has been found that over a period of time, these chipping collect dust and grime and this grime would provide the wick for sustained combustion. Alternatively, one could explore the possibility of providing a firewater sprinkler system around the transformer, which could be automatically triggered in the event of a fire. Note that water displaces oil and any old oil spillage would be washed up from the sump. Therefore, it is imperative that this large quantity of excess oil and water be carted away as quickly as possible to deluge water treatment centers before allowing the water to enter into storm water drains. Provision should be made to separate oil from water and for containment before this separation. Additional precautions, such as separation or segregation, may also be considered if the above solutions are not feasible. Separation involves locating the transformer well away from all other equipment, but this may not be convenient, as there may be space constraints. On the other hand, segregation calls for firewalls to be built around transformers such that fires, if any, would be contained within the walls. This firewall or barrier must be suitably reinforced to be capable of withstanding any explosion from the transformer. The main reason for such separation and segregation requirements is because in the event of transformer oil igniting (for whatever reason), the damage caused shall be restricted to the transformer alone and its immediate ancillary equipment, and shall not interfere with any other unit assemblies in its vicinity. It would be necessary that the layout shall have provisions to completely drain out the oil, which is normally done by providing oil soak pits with adequate capacity. Further the oil cannot be allowed to leak inside the room or other factory areas. In order to install transformers within buildings, it is a general practice that one uses dry type resin encapsulated units rather than using liquid-filled transformers to overcome most of the above issues in one shot. Again cost could play a role in such decisions.

7.3.2 Ventilation
Once it is decided to have transformers indoors, whether oil filled or dry type, then adequate ventilation and physical isolation is required. Physical isolation is mainly for oil-filled ones but ventilation is a main requirement for indoor transformers. The main issue with ventilation is insufficient or non-availability of free air to cool the transformer. Hence, transformer windings reach their maximum permissible temperatures with loads as low as 50%. It is recommended that the transformer room is provided with open doors and ventilation fans to enforce forced cooling, if the layout does not allow natural free flow of air across the transformer body. The room in which transformers are placed must have ventilation arrangements to ensure that heated air escapes readily and can be replaced by cool air. Inlet openings should be near the flow and distributed to be most effective. The outlet opening(s) should be as high above the apparatus as the construction of the building will permit. The number and size of outlets required will depend on their distance above the transformer and on the efficiency and load cycle of the apparatus. In general, about 60 square feet of outlet opening or openings should be provided for each 1000 kVA of transformer capacity. Air inlets should be provided with the same total area as the outlets. Self-cooled transformers should always be separated from one another and from adjacent walls, partitions, etc. in order to permit free circulation of air about the tanks. This separation should not be less than 750 mm and shall preferably be around 1 meter.

Transformer Installation 123

A typical transformer mounted indoors with such arrangements is given in Figure 7.3. It is to be noted that forced ventilation shall allow cross-flow of air from one end to other end of the transformer.

Figure 7.3

Typical indoor transformer installation with forced ventilation

7.3.3 Approach and maintainability

Another issue with indoor mounting of transformers is the approach required during installation as well as during regular maintenance, once put into service. During installations, normally the space availability may not be a concern but the growth subsequent to transformer installation in a plant may pose problems. Once installed, the access requirements may be for regular inspections or filtering and also for changing oil in extreme cases. Hence proper planning is required during initial project planning to avoid complications at a later date due to the above issues. The transformer installation position should be such that the breather, oil level indicator, rating and diagram plate, dial thermometers etc, can be safely examined with the transformer energized. It should also be possible to have access to the operating mechanisms of the on-load tap changer/off circuit tap switch, marshalling box, etc. The sampling valve, drain valve, etc. also should be at convenient locations.

7.3.4 Transformer dielectric liquid

In selecting the dielectric type for indoor transformers, the following must be adhered to: The dielectric must be non-toxic, biodegradable and must not present a hazard to the environment

124 Practical Power Transformers

The dielectric must have a fire point above 300C to be classified as a fire resistant fluid The dielectric must not contribute to or increase the spread of an external fire nor must the products of combustion be toxic Normal operation, electrical discharges or severe arcing within the transformer must not generate fumes or other products that are toxic or corrosive This does not mean that liquid-filled transformers cannot be used within buildings. They would meet all of the above criteria and in addition are cheaper and smaller than cast-resin or other dry type units. However there must be a provision for total spillage of the dielectric with suitable sumps and/or bunded catchment areas, such that in the event that spillage occurs the building drains would not be flooded with the dielectric liquids. If the transformers are installed on higher levels, then suitable precautions must be taken to prevent leakages to lower floors. On the other hand the building must be made totally weatherproof and care taken to ensure that there should be no deluges due to pipe leaks on dry type of transformers, after installation. Needless to say, every installation should have proper ventilation. It is necessary to take samples of the insulating liquid from the top and bottom of the tank and test its dielectric strength. The dielectric strength should be 30 kV or higher. If it is lower, the transformer should not be placed in service until the dielectric strength has been restored by filtration. In the case of pressurized and sealed transformers, it is common that a pressure vacuum gauge if supplied along with transformer could read negative due to lower temperature at the site of installation, compared to the ambient temperature at which it is sealed. This is not an indication of an abnormality, but in fact an indication that the tank is properly sealed.

7.4

Outdoor installation

7.4.1 General requirements

It is quite common to come across transformers mounted outdoors in old plants as well as in modern plants. The main reason is of course the problems associated with indoor installations, which had been reviewed earlier. The other genuine reasons are the size of transformers and their cooling requirements. The major points to be considered while installing transformer outdoors are, Clearances to the other equipment near the transformer Clearance to ground in case of open type bushings The exposure to rain and possible entry of water if not properly sealed Fencing requirements Fire wall requirements Oil Bunding and Oil disposal plans (Oil soak pits) Sometimes the transformer foundation may have to be raised sufficiently to get adequate sectional clearances to the ground particularly for open bushings. Transformers at 11 kV/13.8 kV may be smaller in size, but in case open bushings are provided, the height of foundation may be half or more than half the transformer height. Proper facilities shall be made to inspect and access parts of transformers during regular checks or during problems. The tank top surfaces are normally sloped downwards to avoid collection of water at the top though it does not completely eliminate water collection. In case of pole-mounted transformers, the clearance required is more than 12 feet from ground level to the top of the transformer bushings.

Transformer Installation 125

It is also common practice to have large size transformers located away from the center of the active plant area. This is due to overhead conductors associated with EHV connections, which cannot be taken inside the plant area. Hence proper fencing and access restrictions shall be necessary in these installations. It is also a recommended practice and some times statutory to have firewalls between transformers, when the installation includes multiple transformers adjoining each other. This is to ensure that an oil explosion in one transformer is not carried over to the other transformers. For outdoor installations, a level concrete plinth of correct size to accommodate the transformer in such a way that no person may step on the plinth should be provided for transformers. Further the access requirements are the same as per indoor transformers and should be adopted. i.e., the breather, oil level indicator, rating and diagram plate, dial thermometers etc, are to be accessible for safe examination with the transformer energized. It should also be possible to have safe access to the operating mechanisms of the on-load tap changer/off circuit tap switch, marshalling box etc. The sampling valve, drain valve, etc. should also be at convenient locations. It is generally approved to have a clearance of about 750 mm to 1000 mm all around transformers to allow access from any side and also to ensure proper cooling. These clearances do not normally increase with the increase in transformer capacities. Though it is not mandatory in some countries, it is practised to have 2 hour fire rated walls between transformers which are mounted side by side. These walls are called blast wall/ fire wall and the main purpose of the wall is to basically prevent oil splash over to the adjacent transformer in case of severe faults leading to transformer blasts and fires. Normally installations having multiple transformers have standby transformers and in such cases it is very important to ensure that these walls are provided to minimize breakdowns in power supply. Also it is very necessary to ensure that the oil drained out under emergency conditions are taken in bunds and are not disposed to storm water drains. This is mainly an environmental issue with many Governments introducing legislations for transformer bunding and safe oil disposals without polluting the surroundings. If any oil-filled transformers are used in the power plant, provisions are made to contain any oil leakage or spillage resulting from a ruptured tank or a broken drain valve. The volume of the containment should be sufficient to retain all of the oil in the transformer to prevent spillage into waterways or contamination of soil around the transformer foundations. Special provisions (oilwater separators, oil traps, etc.) must be made to allow for separation of oil spillage versus normal water runoff from storms, etc. IEEE 979 and 980 provide guidance on design considerations for oil containment systems.

7.4.2 Transformer bushings

One of the major design parameters to be ensured in outdoor transformer installation is the minimum creepage distances for the transformer bushings, which are exposed to atmosphere and to which the main power conductors are terminated. The plant location may be such that the surrounding atmosphere is polluted or non-polluted. Pollution conditions come into the picture when the plant is: Close to a seashore Emitting chemicals and fumes, which can deposit on the bushings over a period of time

126 Practical Power Transformers

In such installations, it will be very important to ensure that creepage distances are comparatively higher than those for standard installations. Table 7.1 gives the creepage distances of bushings recommended for non-polluted and polluted atmospheric surroundings. The creepage distance is about 1.5 times for polluted atmosphere (~ 15/16 inch/kV) compared to normal atmosphere (5/8 inch/kV). Some time outdoor bushings are provided with arcing horns.
Table 7.1

Creepage distances for outdoor bushings

Highest System Voltage (kV) 3.6 7.2 12 24 36 72 123 145 245 420

Creepage distance for Normal atmosphere (mm) 95 130 230 380 580 1100 1850 2250 3800 6480

Creepage distance for polluted atmosphere (mm) 130 230 380 560 840 1700 2800 3400 5600 9660

7.5

Core-and-coil assembly
It is also preferable to check the condition of a transformer core and coil assembly, if the transformer had been kept in non-energized condition for long periods of time. In such cases, the insulating liquid shall be lowered to the top of the core-and-coil assembly and the interior shall be inspected for any possible damage. It is preferable that the coils and insulation are not exposed to the air during such inspections. Examine the top of the core-and-coil assembly, all horizontal surfaces and the underside of the cover for signs of moisture. If there are no signs of moisture or damage, proceed with the reassembly of the transformer. If there are signs of moisture inside the tanks, steps should be taken to determine the extent of it and the manner in which the moisture entered the transformer. Reassembly should be carried through and the manufacturer of the equipment should be requested to make recommendations concerning further checks and steps for drying out the transformer.

7.6

Noise considerations
Transformer noise is caused by a phenomenon called magnetostriction. When a piece of magnetic sheet steel is magnetized it undergoes extension and goes back to its original condition once the magnetic force is removed. All transformers operate on AC systems, which means that the magnetic circuit also undergoes the cyclic changes in line with the supply frequency. The extension and contraction of these sheets is not uniform throughout the length of the sheet due to the irregular concentration of impurities and hence the expansion/contraction varies along the length of the sheet. The extensions and contractions happening are not visible to the human eye but are sufficient enough to cause vibrations of the molecules forming the sheet steel. These vibrations are transferred in the form of noise, which we hear from the transformer. The level of this noise depends on the magnetic flux produced by the system voltage, which cannot be reduced beyond the minimum required values. The noise level is also due to the varying properties of steel over the length of the sheet, which is also unavoidable.

Transformer Installation 127

In every full AC cycle the magnetic core extends and contracts twice. That is for a 50 Hz system, the transformer core internal particles will be vibrating at twice the frequency of the supply i.e. at 100 Hz and this frequency of vibrations is called the fundamental noise frequency of the transformer. Further, due to the natural non-uniformity in the materials, the resultant noise also has harmonics similar to the supply system with odd multiples of frequency. So in a standard 50 Hz operation, we get noise frequencies of 100 (1st), 300 (3rd), 500 (5th), 700 (7th) cycles per second and so on. However, the major contributors of sound are the fundamental and third multiple noise frequencies while other frequencies are low. Further the noise level does not increase with the increase in load current and hence a transformer will have almost same noise irrespective of load conditions. The transformer sound levels are measured in terms of decibels (dB) and this measurement has to be done at various parts of the transformer since the sound emitted is not uniform. Normally the measurements are done at 3 feet or 1 meter from the body, by sound measuring devices along the periphery/contour of the transformer. It is to be remembered that an absolute value of outside ambient sound measurement taken with the transformer un-energized and the values measured after energizing are suitably adjusted to get the real sound contribution from the transformer. It is observed that the vibrations basically produce the noise and hence a transformer installation shall consider limiting these vibrations as well as limiting the transfer of these vibrations as much as possible. Hence transformer installation practices play an important role in limiting the transfer of vibration levels, thereby cutting down the noise level to the maximum possible extent. The main practice to be followed is to isolate the core and coils of the transformer from the ground so that the vibrations are not transferred through the foundation. In air- cooled dry types this means to isolate the core and coil of the transformers from its support on the ground. For an oil-filled transformer it is achieved by isolating the core and coil from its tank base, and isolating the transformer tank base from the supporting ground. Following guidelines could be helpful in containing these vibrations and the resultant sound. Use vibrating materials, which are guaranteed to eliminate transformer noise frequencies (at 100 Hz and above). The best practice is to use anti-vibration pads. Any solid connection from the vibrating transformer to a solid structure will transmit vibration. Hence ensure that all connections to solid terminations are not rigid but flexible. This includes incoming cables, bus bars, stand off insulators, etc. The shipping bolts shall be removed at the time of installation so that they do not short circuit anti-vibration pads. Where the transformers are installed indoors, adequate acoustic treatment would be required on the walls and ceilings to ensure that the noise levels are not transferred to outside areas. If steel plates are used for enclosures, ensure that they are properly gasketed. The fastening down bolts shall be isolated.

7.7

Power circuit connections

The connections to transformer terminals are made through cables, busbars or overhead conductors meeting the specific requirements. Sharp bends in high voltage connection shall be

128 Practical Power Transformers

avoided. Connections must be made without placing mechanical tension or torques directly on the terminals. Minimum phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground clearances shall be maintained. Bolted connections shall be protected against corrosion. It is recommended to use torque wrenches to ensure proper tightening torques. A torque of 45~60 Nm for M12 bolts and 90~120 Nm for M16 bolts is recommended. Use of spring washers is to be ensured to compensate for thermal expansions and to maintain contact pressures. In corrosive areas like sulphurous atmosphere, the joints shall be treated with jointing compound.

7.8

Changes in design parameters

It may so happen that a transformer designed for 50 Hz supply is to be operated at 60 Hz frequency. The following are the effects of such operations. Rated capacity and load loss remain same, which are not frequency dependent. No load loss at 60 Hz falls by about 20 to 25% compared to 50 Hz. Reactance voltage at 60 Hz will be about 20% higher compared to 60 Hz. Operation of a 60 Hz transformer at 50 Hz without corresponding reduction in applied (primary) voltage is not permissible by IEC/AS. Transformer over-excitation brings the core normally into saturation and flux effects will cause thermal damage in insulation associated with mild steel components. The capacities of transformers are normally specified for particular site altitude, which is 1000 m (3300 ft) above sea level. The following should be taken care of at higher altitudes. Capacity de-rated by about 0.4% for every 100 m increase for oil cooled transformers, since the cooling properties of air changes with increasing altitudes. The above de-rating is 0.5% for dry type transformers. Since dielectric strength of air decreases with increase in altitude, the flash over distances and air clearances inside cable boxes/outside areas shall be suitably increased.

7.9

Site installation practices

Normally the transformers are dispatched with oil filled in the transformer tanks but with removable items like radiators transported separately. Hence the balance of oil to be occupied in the radiators is transported separately. Some times, for big transformers, the oil is transported separately with the transformer tank filled with nitrogen gas to avoid entry of moisture during transportation. Where transformers are sent along with radiators mounted to the body, the isolation valves connecting the radiator to the tank are shutoff to avoid any leakages. These valves shall be opened once transformers are received at site. The silica-gel breather is sent separately and the same shall be fitted on the transformer as soon as possible to prevent moisture absorption. All components and transformer conditions shall be verified on arrival at site and any leakage issues shall be sorted out immediately. Any delay on these could pose problems during commissioning.

Transformer Installation 129

Lifting of a transformer is to be done carefully and the use of cranes is recommended considering the weight and importance of the equipment. The recommended lifting arrangement is as per Figure 7.4.

Figure 7.4

Lifting of Transformer

Hydraulic jacks shall be employed at the jacking points provided in the transformer, when required for transferring from the truck and when fastening or turning transport rollers. During such times care must be taken to lift not more than 2 inches at every point so that no torsional strains are imposed. Earthing of transformer body is a must and it shall be ensured that proper earthing connections are provided at the transformer yard. Transformers received at site and not installed immediately are likely to absorb moisture. Hence it is desirable to erect and commission the transformer with minimum delay. However this may not always be the case. If an oil-filled, indoor-type transformer is stored outdoors for a considerable duration, it should be thoroughly covered to keep out rain. A transformer should not be stored or operated in the presence of corrosive vapors or gases, such as chlorine. Should it become necessary to store accessories for a long period of time, they should be stored in a clean, dry place or the manufacturer should be contacted for explicit instructions on the storage of individual pieces.

7.10 Pre-Commissioning tests on site

Although transformers undergo routine tests, it is necessary that the basic system is checked for correctness before commissioning. The following tests are to be conducted and records maintained for future reference:

130 Practical Power Transformers

Voltage ratio test This is required to ensure that all the connections are intact and the windings and tap connections are not disturbed during transport. This test is to be carried out at all tap points. Vector Group test This is another test to check the integrity of connections and ensure that the vector group meets the specification requirements. Insulation resistance test The tests are to be carried out on all the winding terminals to ground. A typical test arrangement is shown in Figure 7.5

Figure 7.5

Transformer IR test arrangement

The values are to be obtained by applying the voltage continuously for 60 seconds. Normally 1kV megger is used upto 6.6 kV and 2.5 kV / 5 kV megger is used for higher voltage transformer windings. The test results at different ambient temperatures shall be corrected to base temperature say 20C. Table 7.2 gives the correction factors for the various temperatures.

Table 7.2

IR measurement correction factors

Ambient temperature C -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Correction factor 0.13 0.18 0.25 0.36 0.5 0.75 1.0 1.4 1.98 2.80 3.95 5.60 7.85

It can be seen that the IR values obtained vary inversely with respect to ambient temperature. The 60-second IR value corrected to 20C shall be a minimum of 100 Mega ohms. Further, the IR readings at 15 seconds shall also be taken. The value of IR at 60 seconds shall be 1.2 to 3 times the 15 second value. A value less than 1.2 indicates the possibility of moisture presence in transformer insulation.

Transformer Installation 131

Oil testing The oil sample shall be sent to an approved laboratory to verify its contents. At the same time it is also necessary to filter the transformer when the installation takes a long time (normally the case). The oil dielectric strength shall be tested and ensured that they meet minimum requirements.

7.11 Pre-commissioning checks

Pre-Commissioning checklists shall be tabulated, checked and signed prior to commissioning. The following are typical pre-commissioning checks that are to be definitely completed before commissioning for safety and better service: Check whether the transformer foundation is straight and the transformer is positioned correctly. Ensure the minimum ventilation requirements and oil containing/draining facilities are provided for indoor transformers. Ensure provision of all components as per drawings and requirements. Ensure access requirements for the transformer and all its accessories and safe clearances around it. Check that the taps operate simultaneously on all the phases. The transformer provided with off circuit tap switch, check whether the mechanical operation including the locking arrangement is satisfactory. Check whether primary and secondary connections have been properly done. Also ensure that arcing horn gaps have been properly set for the bushings, if applicable. Check whether all oil valves are in correct position, closed or opened as required. Bleed all bushings, the Buchholz relay and the other bleed plugs as may be provided. Check that no air pockets are left in the tank. Check that all thermometer pockets are filled with oil. Check whether oil is at the correct level in the conservator, on load tap changer tank, bushings etc. Check whether earthing connections have been properly done. Check that the transformer is properly installed and there is no possibility of any movement during operation. Check that all HV, LV and control cables are properly terminated and they are also tested as applicable. Ensure all pre-commissioning tests are completed and results are satisfactory.

132 Practical Power Transformers

7.12 Commissioning
If all the above pre-commissioning tests/checks are found satisfactory, allow settling time of at least 24 hours for oil and release air from all points. Ensure the following just at the time of commissioning, which may require repeating some of the pre-commissioning checks considered in the earlier clause. Are feeder cables/overhead lines connected to bushing terminals without stressing the porcelains? Are winding neutral terminals properly grounded or ungrounded as required by system operation? Is tank solidly grounded at grounding pads located near the bottom of the tank? Are all current transformers connected to a load or short-circuited at the secondaries? Open secondaries can produce voltages dangerous to humans and connected equipment. Is the tap changer/tap switch set in desired position to give desired voltage ratio and locked for off circuit switch? Have all tools and foreign objects been removed from the transformer? Are all openings and joints sealed? Is insulating liquid at proper level in tank? Also check the levels in other liquid-filled compartments (if applicable). Are all fans and control circuits (if supplied) operational? Is insulating dielectric strength of oil at least 30 kV? Are all personnel away from the transformer? Are fire protective devices in place? Once the above conditions are satisfied, the commissioning can take place in steps. Following are the recommended steps for commissioning. Energize the transformer at no-load with the tap changer at normal position, after setting the protective relays to the minimum extent possible. The voltage should be built up in steps wherever possible. Check whether the primary voltages and currents are balanced. Also check if there is any undue noise or vibration during commissioning and try to find the causes, whether internal or external. After a few hours of energizing at no load, the transformer should be switched off. The following checks and corrections shall be taken up. The Buchholz relay should be checked for collection of air/gas. Abnormalities noticed should be corrected. All protective relays should be reset to normal values. The transformer can now be permanently energized and loaded gradually checking and ensuring the following. Check whether the voltage and currents on the HV & LV sides are balanced. Increase the load to the rated value and check that the noise is not appreciable. A good transformer operates with a healthy hum.

Transformer Installation 133

Observe the operation for a few hours and ensure there is no appreciable increase in temperatures. If the operation is satisfactory, the transformer is kept on load and readings of voltage and currents on all the phases of both HV & LV sides are checked. Check and record the temperature of top oil at regular intervals.

7.13 Recommended settings

Table 7.3 gives the recommended maximum settings of the temperature indicating devices for alarm, trip and control functions. Normally the gauges are provided with a maximum temperature pointer. The following values can be decreased to lower values depending on loading conditions, to reflect the correct status of transformers in case of changes in loading patterns.
Table 7.3

Recommended settings for transformer gauges

Gauge Oil temperature indicator Winding temperature indicator

Alarm 85 C 95 C

Trip 90 C 105 C

Fan setting 80 C

7.14 NZCEP35 code on earthing systems

The NZCEP35 code of practice provides guidance on acceptable methods for determining the safety of earthing systems associated with the following electrical systems. High voltage (HV) stations with earth grids Distribution systems High voltage installations on consumers premises Special locations and frequented locations defined in the code Special locations mean within a schools ground or within a childrens playground, or within a public swimming pool area, or at a popularly used beach or water recreation area, or in a public thoroughfare within 100 metres of any of the above named locations. Frequented locations mean any urban area associated with a city or town other than a Special Location. The code does not apply to: Lines and associated fittings operating at or above a voltage of 66kV Low voltage (LV) earthing on consumers installations Systems not operated at a nominal frequency of 50Hz Locations not defined as special locations and frequented locations in this code. The earthing system shall satisfy the safety and functional requirements of the electrical installation and may be used either jointly or separately for protective or functional purposes. The design, selection and installation of the earthing system shall ensure the following Protection against indirect contact Proper functioning of electrical protective devices

134 Practical Power Transformers

Protective and functional requirements are complied with under expected conditions Earth fault currents and earth leakage currents can be carried without danger including thermal, thermo-mechanical and electromechanical stresses Adequate strength or additional mechanical protection appropriate to the assessed external influences Value of earthing resistance is in accordance with the protective and functional requirements of the installation and is continuously effective Figure 7.6 shows a typical earthing system.

Figure 7.6 Typical Earthing System

Figure 7.7

Transformer Installation 135 Basic Shock Situations

Earth electrodes of the following types shall be used Vertical driven rods or pipes not less than 1.8 m into the ground Horizontal grid, mesh or plates Electrodes embedded in foundations Metallic reinforcement of concrete The type of earth electrode and its embedded depth shall be such that, the earth resistance will not rise above the maximum limit value. Increase in resistance due to corrosion over a period of time should be taken into account in the design and material of construction of the electrodes. In locations where corrosion is expected to be severe, electrodes shall be made of hard drawn copper, copper clad or stainless steel or other material exhibiting equivalent properties. In places where corrosion is not severe, galvanized or plain steel electrodes may be used. Aluminum shall not be used as a buried electrode.

7.14.1 Testing and Inspection

The earth impedance of the earthing system shall be determined by testing at the time of installation and shall be below the maximum safe calculated value. Inspections of earthing system shall verify the connections from the earth grid to driven rods and the connections from earth grid to system neutrals. Whenever some work is performed which can interfere with the earthing system, the system in that area shall be inspected and checked and all the parts of the earthing system exposed by excavation shall be inspected for damage or deterioration. In locations having significant corrosion probability, inspections shall be carried out more frequently on the earth grid and connections and replacements made where necessary. Following records shall be maintained for assessing the integrity of the earthing installation. Initial design calculations Results of periodic inspections Updating of fault level Drawings showing the location of all earth grid connections and or joints

7.14.2 Permissible Shock Current and Step and Touch Voltages

The earthing system shall be constructed to minimize the risk of electric shock to persons, achieved by either reducing the shock currents or by reducing the step and touch voltages.

7.14.3 Limiting of Shock currents

In works that are installed in an enclosed area with restricted access and where control over ground condition is being employed to control shock currents, shock currents shall be deemed to be safe if they are limited to less than Ib as determined by Ib = 0.116 / t amp (for 50 Hz current, t = seconds) where t = 0.3 to 3 seconds and a body resistance of 1000 ohms is applied When above method is used for determining shock current, record shall be kept of all information relating to the determination and control of shock current.

7.14.4 Permissible Touch Voltages

136 Practical Power Transformers

Touch voltage is the voltage which appears between any point of contact with uninsulated metal work located within 2.5 metres from the surface of the ground and any point on the surface of the ground within a horizontal distance of 1.25 metres from the vertical projection of the point of contact with the uninsulated metal work. Refer to figure 7.7. Where works are installed in a special location or a frequented location, the touch voltages shall be within the limits set as following
Special Locations

- Works installed in special locations and operating at voltages not exceeding 66kV shall comply with the requirements of curve A1 shown in figure 7.8. - Works installed in special locations and operating at voltages exceeding 66kV shall comply with the requirements of curve A2 shown in figure 7.8. These requirements shall not apply to any lines and associated fittings operating at or above a voltage of 66kV
Frequented Locations

- Works installed in frequented locations and operating at voltages not exceeding 66kV shall comply with the requirements of curve B1 shown in figure 7.8. - Works installed in frequented locations and operating at voltages exceeding 66kV shall comply with the requirements of curve B2 shown in figure 7.8. These requirements shall not apply to any lines and associated fittings operating at or above a voltage of 66kV.

7.14.5 Permissible Step Voltages

Step voltage is the difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 metre with the persons feet apart, without contacting any other earthed object. Step voltages shall not exceed twice the values of touch voltage as determined in Permissible Touch voltages mentioned above.

7.14.6 Transferred Potentials

Allowances shall be made for transferred potentials when designing an installation. Where voltage rises on the earthing system are transferred by metalwork such as neutral conductors of a MEN (Multiple Earthed Neutral) system, water pipes and the like to locations remote from the installation, allowance may be made for voltage drop in these conductors. Otherwise, the transferred potential shall be regarded as being equal to the earthing system voltage rise.

Transformer Installation 137

Figure 7.8 Permissible Touch Voltages

7.14.7 High Voltage Stations with Earth Grids

This section applies to High Voltage Stations with Earth Grids.
Power System Neutral Earth

The power system neutral earth is provided by the interconnection of the station earthing system with the power system neutral. Power system neutral earthing shall comprise one of the following connections A solid connection, usually to a transformer star point An impedance connection employing a resistance, a reactance or an earthing transformer The earthing of the power system neutral shall Provide an earth reference for the power system Prevent abnormal system over voltages during intermittent earth faults and Permit the selective operation of current operated earth fault protection

7.14.8 Design of Earthing Systems

All fittings and any uninsulated metalwork, other than cable screens or armouring which are liable to become alive shall be connected to the earthing system with a minimum of one conductor, capable of carrying full design fault current for the duration of any fault which may liven the fitting or uninsulated metalwork. Cable screens and armouring shall be regarded as metal work traversing the earth grid shall be bonded or left unbonded in accordance with the following. Metalwork bonded to the earth grid and projecting beyond the earth grid may introduce a hazard from transferred potential and shall be considered during the design. The conductors used for earthing shall be sufficiently large so as to

138 Practical Power Transformers

Reduce the probability of mechanical damage Minimize the impact of minor corrosion Have adequate current carrying capacity The earthing systems should be upgraded wherever the fault levels increase above the original design level Necessary allowances shall be made for current distribution in the earthing system

7.14.9 Transferred Earth Potential Rise

Earthing systems shall be designed to prevent Transfer of earth grid potentials to a remote earth Transfer of a remote earth potential into a station Breakdown of cable oversheaths because of voltage differences Telecommunication circuits in high voltage stations may be protected by use of appropriate isolation transformers and/ or optocouplers Cross bonding of long cable sheaths may be carried out in order to limit induced sheath voltages Fences and pipes may be sectionalized by inserting insulating sections to prevent transfer of potentials Telecommunication systems, near the earthing systems shall be designed to avoid danger to people using or maintaining the services

7.14.10 Earthing for Distribution System

Earth fault current paths for distribution systems may include The transformer winding The distribution system phase conductor The return earth path between the fault location and the distribution centre earth electrode The earth connections at the distribution centre which form the MEN system including the distribution system neutral

7.14.11 Neutral Connection to Earth

In low voltage alternating current system, the neutral conductor shall be earthed at or near the distribution centre and at other places to ensure that under fault conditions, the earthing system provides a low impedance path for earth fault currents. Where applicable, fault conditions shall include those faults involving the associated high voltage system. Separate LV and HV earths may be installed to minimize the earth potential rise on the LV neutral during HV earth faults Calculation of earth impedance of a combined HV/LV distribution system should take into account all the connections of the neutral conductor to earth, including The earth connection at the distribution centre Earths that may be installed in the distribution system Earth connections at consumers installations Effect of any permanent interconnections between the neutral conductor of a given distribution system and the neutral of other distribution systems In High voltage system, the neutral conductor shall be earthed at or near the source of supply by Direct earthing of the neutral point Earthing an artificial neutral point obtained from an earthing transformer Earthing using an earthing resistor or reactor

Transformer Installation 139

Earthing of the neutral at other points in the system

7.14.12 Impedance of Earth Fault Current Path

In an alternating current system, the impedance of the earth fault current path shall be such as to ensure the proper operation of the protective devices which disconnect the supply. A minimum safety factor of two shall be used when calculating the impedance required and specifying protective device operating values. The earthing system impedance shall be such that the earthing system, and any fitting connected to it, does not introduce a danger to persons or property.

7.14.13 Earthing Connections and Earthing at Distribution Centres

All fittings directly associated with high voltage system shall be earthed by a minimum of two independent earthing systems and connected in such a manner that either can be disconnected independently for the purpose of testing. Following fittings shall be connected to the earthing system of a distribution centre (Refer to figures 7.9 ~ 7.13) Transformers and circuit breakers Metallic cable sheaths or screens Low voltage neutrals, except where separate HV and LV earthing systems are installed, in which case only the LV neutrals shall be connected to the LV earthing system Lightning arresters Any uninsulated metalwork within 2.5 metres of the ground that may become alive

7.14.14 Earthing of Fittings other than at Distribution Centres

Any metalwork liable to become alive within 2.5 metres of the ground and with which persons may come into contact shall be connected to earth, provided that the impedance to earth is such that the safe limits of the step and touch potentials are not exceeded. Lightning arresters shall be earthed by a direct earth connection which presents a low earth impedance path to high frequency currents. They may be bonded to the earthing point of high voltage systems. The metal operating handles of all high voltage switching fittings shall be directly earthed unless the handles are insulated to the full working voltage so as to avoid hazardous touch potentials.

7.14.15 Earthing Connections

Earthing conductors used for making connections of fittings to earth shall have a capacity not less than the size calculated on the Nomogram (Figure 7.9). The clearance times specified in the Nomogram relate to the protection associated with the portion of high voltage line and the distribution centre fuses. Earthing conductors, where exposed shall be 0.6/1kV rated and either Green or green/ yellow PVC insulated or Enclosed in insulating conduit Insulated conductors shall be copper and shall be bare unless there are special reasons for using insulated copper. Bare aluminium shall not be buried.

140 Practical Power Transformers

7.14.16 Low Voltage Earthing Conductors associated with LV System

Conductors used to connect the neutral terminal or bar of LV system to the earth bar or neutral conductor of an outgoing overhead line, shall not be smaller than that calculated in the Nomogram (Figure 7.9) based on the expected fault current and duration.

7.14.17 Connections of Earthing Electrodes

Where conductors are connected to earth electrodes and are accessible to the public, those conductors shall be protected against mechanical damage. The conductors shall be brought out of the ground parallel and close to the foot of the pole and shall be protected to a height of 2.5 metres. Fibreglass channel section or suitable wood may be used to provide mechanical protection. Joints between earthing conductors and earth electrodes shall be of adequate mechanical strength and current carrying capacity and so arranged as to ensure that there will be no failure of the connection under any conditions of use or exposure that may be reasonably anticipated. Clamps and similar mechanical connections shall be so designed and constructed that the connection will not slacken off under use. Where conductors connecting driven electrodes in parallel are not kept above the ground, they shall be buried no less than 0.5 metres below the surface. Connections of conductors to such electrodes shall be made by welding, or exothermic welding processes. If test links are inserted in earthing conductors connected to electrodes, they shall be bolted links and arranged so that opening of one link does not interfere with earth connections other than the one under test.

Figure 7.9 Fault Duration Levels for Standard Aluminium and Copper non tensioned Earthing Conductors

Transformer Installation 141

Figure 7.10 Recommended earthing system for pole mounted transformer

142 Practical Power Transformers

Figure 7.11 Recommended earthing arrangement for air break isolator with other apparatus

Transformer Installation 143

Figure 7.12 Recommended earthing arrangement for lightning arresters (surge diverters)

144 Practical Power Transformers

Figure 7.13

Recommended earthing arrangement for High voltage installation at consumer premises