Chapter 1

HEAT EXCHANGER CFD Analysis INTRODUCTION

A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to another, whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix, or the media are in direct contact. They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning, power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, and natural gas processing. One common example of a heat exchanger is the radiator in a car, in which the heat source, being a hot engine-cooling fluid, water, transfers heat to air flowing through the radiator [i.e. the heat transfer medium]. Traditional heat-exchanger design methods do not predict steady-state uniform-property performance well; and they are totally unable to predict the influences of time-dependence and varying properties or the consequent stresses in the shell and tubes. On the other hand, conventional CFD (computational fluid dynamics)

techniques, with their emphasis on body-fitting grids and sophisticated turbulence models, can contribute only to small-scale phenomena such as the velocity and temperature distributions within the space occupied by a few-tube sub-section of a tube bank.

Nevertheless, the practical importance of heat exchangers, including those which involve chemical reaction and phase change, is so great that engineers must find design tools which are both economically-affordable and more realistic in prediction than either of the just-mentioned extremes. Such tools discretize space and time with the fineness allowed by modern computers; but they still inevitably employ space intervals which are large compared with tube diameters. They have been used for research purposes for many years; however, the difficulty of supplying them with all the relevant empirical input data has deterred designers from using them. The Project will describe a means of greatly reducing the difficulty; it accepts the formulae (for heat-transfer coefficients, viscosity-temperature relations, etc) in the form with which designers are familiar; and it also produces more information, for example about local heat fluxes, hot-spots and stress concentrations. Theory and Application Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, either from tube side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, leading to the use of many tubes. In this way, waste heat can be put to use. This is an efficient way to conserve energy.

Heat exchangers with only one phase (liquid or gas) on each side can be called one-phase or single-phase heat exchangers. Two-phase heat exchangers can be used to heat a liquid to boil it into a gas (vapor), sometimes called boilers, or cool a vapor to condense it into a liquid (called condensers), with the phase change usually occurring on the shell side. Boilers in steam engine locomotives are typically large, usually cylindrically-shaped shell-and-tube heat exchangers. In large power plants with steam-driven turbines, shell-and-tube surface condensers are used to condense the exhaust steam exiting the turbine into condensate water which is recycled back to be turned into steam in the steam generator.

A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of heat exchanger designs. It is the most common type of heat exchanger in oil refineries and other large chemical processes, and is suited for higher-pressure applications. As its name implies, this type of heat exchanger consists of a shell (a large pressure vessel) with a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs through the tubes, and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed by several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

Chapter - 2 Heat exchanger design

There can be many variations on the shell and tube design. Typically, the ends of each tube are connected to plenums (sometimes called water boxes) through holes in tubesheets. The tubes may be straight or bent in the shape of a U, called U-tubes.

In nuclear power plants called pressurized water reactors, large heat exchangers called steam generators are two-phase, shell-and-tube heat exchangers which typically have U-tubes. They are used to boil water recycled from a surface condenser into steam to drive a turbine to produce power. Most shell-and-tube heat exchangers are either 1, 2, or 4 pass designs on the tube side. This refers to the number of times the fluid in the tubes passes through the fluid in the shell. In a single pass heat exchanger, the fluid goes in one end of each tube and out the other.

Surface condensers in power plants are often 1-pass straight-tube heat exchangers (see Surface condenser for diagram). Two and four pass designs are common because the fluid can enter and exit on the same side. This makes construction much simpler.

There are often baffles directing flow through the shell side so the fluid does not take a short cut through the shell side leaving ineffective low flow volumes.

Counter current heat exchangers are most efficient because they allow the highest log mean temperature difference between the hot and cold streams. Many companies however do not use single pass heat exchangers because they can break easily in addition to being more expensive to build. Often multiple heat exchangers can be used to simulate the counter current flow of a single large exchanger. A Baffle is an integral part of the shell and tube heat exchanger design. It is designed to support the tubular bundles and direct the flow of fluids for maximimum efficiency.

Use of baffles
The main roles of a baffle are to:

Hold tubes in position (preventing sagging), both in production and operation Prevent the effects of vibration, which is increased with both fluid velocity and the length of the exchanger Direct shell-side fluid flow along tube field. This increases fluid velocity and the effective heat transfer co-efficient of the exchanger

Types of baffles
Implementation of baffles is decided on the basis of size, cost and their ability to lend support to the tube bundles and direct flow. Often this is linked to available pressure drop and the size and number of passes within the exchanger. Special allowances/changes are also made for finned tubes. The different types of baffles include:

Segmental Baffles (of which single segment is the most common) Rod or Bar Baffles (giving a uniform shell-side flow) Helical Baffles (similar to segmental with less pressure drop for same size exchanger) Longitudinal Flow Baffles (used in a two-pass shell) Impingement Baffles (used for protecting bundle when entrance velocity is high)

Installation of baffles
As mentioned, baffles deal with the concern of support and fluid direction in heat exchangers. In this way it is vital that they are spaced correctly at installation. The minimum baffle spacing is the greater of 50 mm or one fifth of the inner shell diameter. The maximum baffle spacing is dependent on material and size of tubes. The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association sets out guidelines. There are also segments with a "no tubes in window" design that affects the acceptable spacing within the design. An important design consideration is that no recirculation zones or dead spots form - both of which are counterproductive to effective heat transfer.

Selection of tube material

To be able to transfer heat well, the tube material should have good thermal conductivity. Because heat is transferred from a hot to a cold side through the tubes, there is a temperature difference through the width of the tubes. Because of the tendency of the tube material to thermally expand differently at various temperatures, thermal stresses occur during operation. This is in addition to any stress from high pressures from the fluids themselves. The tube material also should be compatible with both the shell and tube side fluids for long periods under the operating conditions (temperatures, pressures, pH, etc.) to minimize deterioration such as corrosion. All of these requirements call for careful selection of strong, thermally-conductive, corrosion-resistant, high quality tube materials, typically metals, including copper alloy, stainless steel, carbon steel, non-ferrous copper alloy, Inconel, nickel, Hastelloy and titanium. Poor choice of tube material could result in a leak through a tube between the shell and tube sides causing fluid cross-contamination and possibly loss of pressure.

Flow arrangement
Heat exchangers may be classified according to their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is most efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer) medium. See countercurrent exchange . In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to one another through the exchanger. For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be affected by the addition

of fins or corrugations in one or both directions, which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce turbulence. The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with position, but an appropriate mean temperature can be defined. In most simple systems this is the log mean temperature difference (LMTD). Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU method is used.

Heat Exchanger Design Procedure

1) Step by step design and rating calculations 2) Estimate the Physical properties of more than 1450 components; the database has the ability to estimate Thermal Conductivity, Density, Heat Capacity and Viscosity. The database also included critical properties, boiling and melting points. 3) Estimate mixture properties. (ALL ESTIMATION METHODS CURRENTLY SUPPORT LIQUIDS ONLY) 4) Integrated customised database functions to allow user to add/delete components. 5) Fixed tube sheet counts and general tube sizes tables 6) Ability to import properties to Shell/Tube sides form Microsoft Excel 7) Export Results summary to Microsoft Excel 8) Ability to calculate unknown shell or tube side temperatures by iteration method (solving by trial and error) - also calculate unknown exit temperatures in rating mode. 9) Also can select from different correlations to calculate shell or tube heat transfer coefficient 10) Calculate the scale resistance (dirt factor) 11) Shell/Tube side Reynolds & Nusselt numbers 12) Baffle number and spacing 13) Recommended minimum shell thickness, minimum recommended number & diameter of rods. 14) Calculate Shell/Nozzle/Channel/Head/Tubesheet Thickness. 15) Support S.I Units and English (U.S) Units of mesurement. 16) Duty Calculation 17) Overall heat transfer coefficient for both Clean and Fouled conditions 18) Shell/Tube velocities. 19) Number of transfer units, Effectiveness, Thermal capacity ratio 20) Pumping power / Inlet and Exit Nozzles pressure losses / Scale resistance Calculators 21) Save/Load results. 22) Generate/Print a summary of results.

Chapter 3
Computer Aided Design of Heat exchanger

There are several thermal design features that are to be taken into account when designing the shell and tube heat exchangers. These include:

Tube diameter: Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical and compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available space, cost and the fouling nature of the fluids must be considered.

Tube thickness: The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure: o There is enough room for corrosion o That flow-induced vibration has resistance o Axial strength o Ability to easily stock spare parts cost Sometimes the wall thickness is determined by the maximum pressure differential across the wall.

Tube length: heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this, including the space available at the site where it is going to be used and the need to ensure that there are tubes available in lengths that are twice the required length (so that the tubes can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, it has to be remembered that long, thin tubes are difficult to take out and replace.

Tube pitch: when designing the tubes, it is practical to ensure that the tube pitch (i.e., the centre-centre distance of adjoining tubes) is not less than 1.25 times the tubes' outside diameter. A larger tube pitch leads to a larger overall shell diameter which leads to a more expensive heat exchanger.

Tube corrugation: this type of tubes, mainly used for the inner tubes, increases the turbulence of the fluids and the effect is very important in the heat transfer giving a better performance.

Tube Layout: refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30), rotated triangular (60), square (90) and rotated square (45). The triangular patterns are employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.

Baffle Design: baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across the tube bundle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at 180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward and downwards between the tube bundle. Baffle spacing is of large thermodynamic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers. Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of pressure drop and heat transfer. For thermo economic optimization it is suggested that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shells inner diameter. Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because of flow redirection. Consequently having the baffles spaced too far apart means that there may be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. It is also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and donut baffle which consists of two concentric baffles, the outer wider baffle looks like a donut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped as a disk. This type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the disk then through the donut baffle generating a different type of fluid flow.

Introduction to Pro/E Wildfire 3.0

Pro/ENGINEER is a parametric, feature based, solid modeling System. It is the only menu driven higher end software. Pro/ENGINEER provides mechanical engineers

with an approach to mechanical design automation based on solid modeling technology and the following features. 3-D Modeling The essential difference between Pro/ENGINEER and traditional CAD systems is that models created in Pro/ENGINEER exist as three-dimensional solids. Other 3-D modelers represent only the surface boundaries of the model. Pro/ENGINEER models the complete solid. This not only facilitates the creation of realistic geometry, but also allows for accurate model calculations, such as those for mass properties.

Parametric Design
Dimensions such as angle, distance, and diameter control Pro/ENGINEER model geometry. You can create relationships that allow parameters to be automatically calculated based on the value of other parameters. When you modify the dimensions, the entire model geometry can update according to the relations you created.

Feature-Based Modeling
You create models in Pro/ENGINEER by building features. These features have intelligence, in that they contain knowledge of their environment and adapt predictably to change. Each features asks the user for specific information based on the feature type. For example, a hole has a diameter, depth, and placement, while a round has a radius and edges to round.

Associativity
Pro/ENGINEER is a fully associative system. This means that a change in the design model anytime in the development process is propagated throughout the design, automatically updating all engineering deliverables, including assemblies, drawings, and manufacturing data. Associativity makes concurrent engineering possible by encouraging change, without penalty, at any point in the development cycle. This enables downstream functions to contribute their knowledge and expertise early in the development cycle.

Capturing Design Intent

The strength of parametric modeling is in its ability to satisfy critical design parameters throughout the evolution of a solid model. The concept of capturing design intent is based on incorporating engineering knowledge into a model. This intent is achieved by establishing feature and part relationships and by the feature-dimensioning scheme. An example of design intent is the proportional relationship between the wall thickness of a pressure vessel and its surface area, which should remain valid even as the size of the vessel changes.

Combining Features into Parts

The various types of Pro/ENGINEER features serve as building blocks in the progressive creation of solid parts. Certain features, by necessity, precede others in the design process. The features that follow rely on the previously defined features for dimensional and geometric references. The progressive design of features can create relationships between features already in the design and subsequent features in the design that reference them. The following figure illustrates the progressive design of features.

Parent-Child Relationships
The definition of a feature frequently relies on dimensional and geometric cues taken from another feature. This kind of relationship is termed a parent-child relationship. The parent-child relationship is one of the most powerful aspects of Pro/ENGINEER. When a parent feature is modified, its children are automatically recreated to reflect the changes in the geometry of the parent feature. It is therefore essential to reference feature dimensions and geometry so design modifications are correctly propagated throughout the model. Because children reference parents, features can exist without children, but children cannot exist without their parents.

Part Modeling
Starting Out in Part Mode--Describes how to start creating a part with Pro/ENGINEER. Sketcher--Describes how to create sketches in a stand-alone Sketcher mode. Datums--Describes how to create datum features: datum planes, datum points, datum curves, datum axes, coordinates features, graphs, evaluate features. Sketching on a Model --Describes how to create 3-D sections in the process of feature creation. Feature Creation Basics--Describes how to create extruded and revolved protrusions. Sweeps, Blends, and Advanced Features--Describes how to create sweeps, blends, and advanced features. Construction Features--Describes how to create construction features, such as holes, slots, and cuts.

Rounds--Describes how to add rounds to part geometry. Tweak Features--Describes how to create tweak features, such as draft, local push, and section dome. Creating Surface Features--Describes how to create surface features. Creating Advanced Surface Features--Describes how to create advanced surface features. Working with Quilts--Describes operations that you can perform on quilts. Freeform Manipulation--Describes how to dynamically manipulate a surface of a part or quilt. Patterning Features--Describes how to pattern features. Copying Features--Describes how to create and place groups of features, and how to copy features. Modifying the Part--Describes how to modify and redefine the part. Regenerating the Part--Describes how to regenerate the part and resolve regeneration problems.

Assembly
Just as you can combine features into parts, you can also combine parts into assemblies. Assembly mode in Pro/ENGINEER enables you to place component parts and subassemblies together to form assemblies, as well as to design parts based on how they should fit together. You can then modify, analyze, or reorient the resulting assemblies.

Overview

To

create a subassembly or an assembly, you must place a base component or feature, then attach additional components to the base and to each other. You cannot attach components to an exploded assembly. You must unexplode it first. You can add components to an assembly in the following ways: Attach a component parametrically by specifying its position relative to the base component or other components in the assembly.

Attach a component nonparametrically using the Package command in the COMPONENT menu. Use packaging as a temporary means to include the component in the assembly; then finalize its location with assembly instructions.

Create a part or subassembly directly in Assembly mode. This option is available only if you have a Pro/ASSEMBLY license.

Working with Assemblies

To work with an assembly, use the File menu to open or create an assembly file (see Introduction to Pro/ENGINEER for more information). The ASSEMBLY menu displays the following options:

Component--Manipulates assembly components (using the COMPONENT menu). Feature--Manipulates assembly features (using the ASSY FEAT menu). Modify--Modifies assembly or component dimensions and features (using the ASSEM MOD and MODIFY menus). Restructure--Modifies assembly groupings, moving components from one assembly or subassembly to another (using the RESTRUCTURE menu). Mechanism--Allows you to define motion for the assembly (using Pro/MECHANICA). Simplfd Rep--Creates, modifies, or sets a simplified representation (using the SIMPLFD REP menu). Design Mgr--Accesses tools to manage assembly design (using the DESIGN MGR menu). Expld State--Creates, sets, and modifies explode states of an assembly (using the EXPLD STATE menu). Regenerate--Updates modified part and assembly dimensions (using the PRT TO REGEN menu). Relations--Edits parametric labels and adds or edits constraint equations (using the MODEL REL and RELATIONS menus). Family Tab--Edits assembly family tables or creates assembly instances (using the FAMILY TABLE menu).

Set Up--Assigns assembly mass properties, and specifies length units, mass units, dimension bounds, and other set up properties (using the ASSEM SETUP menu). Layer--Performs layer procedures (using the LEVEL SEL and MODEL INFO menus). Program--Provides an option (Pro/PROGRAM) to create a program to control the design of parts in an assembly (using the PROGRAM menu). Integrate--Retrieves integration project files (created in Pro/PDM) and generates difference reports to resolve differences between source and target assemblies (using the INTEGRATE menu).

Copy From--Copies entire assemblies or subassemblies into the new assembly.

Initial Procedures
To place a base component or feature, you must either create three orthogonal datum planes as the first feature, assemble an existing component (part, subassembly, or skeleton model), or create a base component.

Datum Planes as the First Features

When you create three orthogonal datum planes as the first features in an assembly, you can assemble a component with respect to these planes, or create a part in Assembly mode as the first component. Using datum planes as the first feature has the following advantages: You can redefine the placement constraints of the first assembled component. You can pattern the first component you add, creating a flexible design. You can replace the first component with interchangeable components. You can reorder subsequent components to come before the first one (if the components are not children of the first component).

Placing a Base Component

If you do not create three orthogonal datum planes, the base component is the first part, subassembly, or skeleton model placed into an assembly. In many ways it is like the base feature of a part. The initial assembly units are the same as the units of the base component. When a base component is the first object in an assembly (before any assembly features), no placement constraints are defined. The component is simply

placed by default. If you replace a base component with interchangeable components, the replacing components will always be placed by default as well.

Creating a Base Component

When you create the first component of an assembly, you can either create an empty component or copy from an existing component. As with an assembled base component, the initial assembly units are the same as the base component, and interchange components that replace the created base component will always be in the default orientation. For more information on creating a base component.

Assembling a Component Parametrically

You can position a component relative to its neighbors (components or assembly features) so that its position is updated as its neighbors move or change. This is called parametric assembly. Pro/ENGINEER allows you to specify constraints to determine how and where the component relates to the assembly. To assemble a component parametrically, use the Component Placement dialog box. You can access this dialog box through either the pop-up menu in the Model Tree window or the Assemble command in the COMPONENT menu. For more information about the Model Tree Window.

The Component Placement Dialog Box

The Component Placement dialog box contains two tabs, as

shown in the following figure. The Place tab provides options for constraining a new component, and the Move tab provides options for translating, rotating, and adjusting a component once you have placed it in the assembly. For more information on the Move tab, the following boxes appear in the Place tab in the Component Placement dialog box:

Display

Component In--Allows you to change the screen window in which the component

appears while you position it. This box has two option buttons, which you can change at any time. constraints. constraints or remove existing ones. placement constraint for the component. select a constraint in the Constraints box. Retr Refs-Retrieves any other components which define the location of the component. This option appears if, in a simplified representation, you redefine a component that depends on components that are not in the simplified representation. Constraint Type --Allows you to select a type of constraint to define. Reference--Allows you to specify a reference in the assembly. constraints.) Status--Displays the current placement status of the component. Command Buttons Placement Offset--Allows you to define the offset from the reference. (Valid for Mate Offset and Align Offset Component Assembly Reference--Allows you to specify a reference on the placed component. Remove-Deletes a placement constraint for the component. To access this option, you must Add--Adds a Assembly-Constraints-Shows the component in the assembly window while you specify its constraints. Displays the constraints that you have defined, and allows you to add new Separate Window--Shows the component in its own window while you specify its

 component with the current constraints constraints.

OK--Places the Preview--

Shows the location of the component as it would be with the current placement Cancel--Quits

the placement operation and removes the component from the Model Tree.

How to Assemble a Component

1. Either choose ASSEMBLY > Component > Assemble, or click the right mouse button on the assembly name in the Model Tree and choose Component > Assemble. 2. Select the component. The Component Placement dialog box appears and the component appears in the Assembly Window. 3. Choose Add, then select the type of constraint to add. The default constraint type is Mate. 4. Define the placement constraints. As you do so, Pro/ENGINEER automatically updates a line in the Constraints box corresponding to the constraint. If you have chosen Assembly from the Display Component In box, the placement of the component in the assembly window is also updated as you specify constraints. As you add constraints to the component, the Placement Status window is updated with the following messages: Constraints'' constrained'' constrained'' invalid'' 5. When the component is either ``fully constrained,'' or ``partially constrained,'' click OK to leave the Component Placement dialog box. ``Constraints ``Partially ``Fully ``No

If constraints are incomplete, you can leave the component as packaged components follow the behavior dictated by the configuration file option package constraints Note: Since the components are packaged but not placed, you cannot create children that reference them. If constraints are conflicting, you can restart or continue placing the component. If you choose to restart, it erases all previously defined constraints for the component.

Placement Constraint Types

Using the TYPE options, you can specify 11 placement constraint types: mate, mate offset, align, align offset, insert, orient, coordinate system, tangent, edge on surface, point on surface, and default. This section provides a description and example of each type. If you are aligning or mating a datum plane, a yellow arrow appears on the specified datum plane by default, pointing in the direction that the yellow side currently faces. The Datum Orient dialog box also appears; choose Red or Yellow to indicate which side of the datum plane should face in the direction indicated by the arrow.

Mate Option
Use the Mate option to make two surfaces touch one another: coincident and facing each other. When using datums, you must specify which sides, red or yellow, to mate.[25]

Steps in Modeling of the Connecting Rod

The following is the list of steps that are use to create the required model: The base feature is created on three orthogonal datum planes. Creating two circular entities on either sides of rod crank and piston pin end (with the help of sketcher Option). Filling the material between the crank and piston pin End (with the help of EXTRUDE Option).

The second feature is also created on datum planes. A cut-feature is created on the second feature. Creation of plane perpendicular to axis for first hole. Creating the first hole at the piston end (with the help of Make HOLE Option). Creation of plane perpendicular to axis for second hole. Creating the second hole at the piston end (with the help of Make HOLE Option).

HEAT EXCHANGER DIMENSIONS