What is a Variable Frequency Drive? How does a VFD Work?

Do you have ac motors in your facility? Do these motors need a variable output? Do you use mechanical means to vary the output? If you anwsered yes to these questions, you need to install variable frequency drives on these ac motors. If you are not using VFD's you are wasting energy and throwing money out the window. Many utilities are now offering rebates for the installation of VFD's or retro-fitting existing equipment with variable frequency drives. Contact your local utility or search VFD rebate.

Part 1
What is a VFD?
By: Dave Polka

You can divide the world of electronic motor drives into two categories: AC and DC. A motor drive controls the speed, torque, direction and resulting horsepower of a motor. A DC drive typically controls a shunt wound DC motor, which has separate armature and field circuits. AC drives control AC induction motors, and-like their DC counterparts-control speed, torque, and horsepower. Application As An Example Let's take a brief look at a drive application. In Fig. 1, you can see a simple application with a fixed speed fan using a motor starter. You could replace the 3-phase motor starter with Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) to operate the fan at variable speed. Since you can operate the fan at any speed below its maximum, you can vary airflow by controlling the motor speed instead of the air outlet damper.

Figure 1, Fixed Speed Fan Application A drive can control two main elements of a 3-phase induction motor: speed and torque. To understand how a drive controls these two elements, we will take a short review of AC induction motors. Fig. 2 shows the construction of an induction motor. The two basic parts of the motor, the rotor and stator, work through magnetic interaction. A motor contains pole pairs. These are iron pieces in the stator, wound in a specific pattern to provide a north to south magnetic field.

Figure 2, Basic Induction Motor Construction

Figure 3, Operating Principles of Induction Motor With one pole pair isolated in a motor, the rotor (shaft) rotates at a specific speed: the base speed. The number of poles and the frequency applied determine this speed (Fig. 4). This formula includes an effect called "slip." Slip is the difference between the rotor speed and the rotating magnetic field in the stator. When a magnetic field passes through the conductors of the rotor, the rotor takes on magnetic fields of its own. These rotor magnetic fields will try to catch up to the rotating fields of the stator. However, it never does -- this difference is slip. Think of slip as the distance between the greyhounds and the hare they are chasing around the track. As long as they don't catch up to the hare, they will continue to revolve around the track. Slip is what allows a motor to turn. Motor Slip:

120 X F - Slip P Slip for NEMA B Motor = 3 to 5% of Base Speed which is 1800 RPM at Full Load F = Frequency applied to the motor P = Number of motor poles Example: 120 X 60 Hz Shaft Speed = - Slip 4 Figure 4, Induction Motor Slip Calculation Shaft Speed =

We can conveniently adjust the speed of a motor by changing the frequency applied to the motor. You could adjust motor speed by adjusting the number of poles, but this is a physical change to the motor. It would require rewinding, and result in a step change to the speed. So, for convenience, cost-efficiency, and precision, we change the frequency. Fig. 5 shows the torque-developing characteristic of every motor: the Volts per Hertz ratio (V/Hz). We change this ratio to change motor torque. An induction motor connected to a 460V, 60 Hz source has a ratio of 7.67. As long as this ratio stays in proportion, the motor will develop rated torque. A drive provides many different frequency outputs. At any given frequency output of the drive, you get a new torque curve.

Figure 5, Volts/Hertz Ratio

Part 2
How Drive Changes Motor Speed Just how does a drive provide the frequency and voltage output necessary to change the speed of a motor? That's what we'll look at next. Fig. 6 shows a basic PWM drive. All PWM drives contain these main parts, with subtle differences in hardware and software components.

Figure 6, Basic PWM Drive Components Although some drives accept single-phase input power, we'll focus on the 3-phase drive. But to simplify illustrations, the waveforms in the following drive figures show only one phase of input and output. The input section of the drive is the converter. It contains six diodes, arranged in an electrical bridge. These diodes convert AC power to DC power. The next section-the DC bus section-sees a fixed DC voltage.

The DC Bus section filters and smoothes out the waveform. The diodes actually reconstruct the negative halves of the waveform onto the positive half. In a 460V unit, you'd measure an average DC bus voltage of about 650V to 680V. You can calculate this as line voltage times 1.414. The inductor (L) and the capacitor (C) work together to filter out any AC component of the DC waveform. The smoother the DC waveform, the cleaner the output waveform from the drive. The DC bus feeds the final section of the drive: the inverter. As the name implies, this section inverts the DC voltage back to AC. But, it does so in a variable voltage and frequency output. How does it do this? That depends on what kind of power devices your drive uses. If you have many SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier)-based drives in your facility, see the Sidebar. Bipolar Transistor technology began superceding SCRs in drives in the mid-1970s. In the early 1990s, those gave way to using Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) technology, which will form the basis for our discussion. Switching Bus With IGBTs Today's inverters use Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) to switch the DC bus on and off at specific intervals. In doing so, the inverter actually creates a variable AC voltage and frequency output. As shown in Fig. 7, the output of the drive doesn't provide an exact replica of the AC input sine waveform. Instead, it provides voltage pulses that are at a constant magnitude.

Figure 7, Drive Output Waveform The drive's control board signals the power device's control circuits to turn "on" the waveform positive half or negative half of the power device. This alternating of positive and negative switches recreates the 3 phase output. The longer the power device remains on, the higher the output voltage. The less time the power device is on, the lower the output voltage (shown in Fig.8). Conversely, the longer the power device is off, the lower the output frequency.

Figure 8, Drive Output Waveform Components The speed at which power devices switch on and off is the carrier frequency, also known as the switch frequency. The higher the switch frequency, the more resolution each PWM pulse contains. Typical switch frequencies are 3,000 to 4,000 times per second (3KHz to 4KHz). (With an older, SCR-based drive, switch frequencies are 250 to 500 times per second). As you can imagine, the higher the switch frequency, the smoother the output waveform and the higher the resolution. However, higher switch frequencies decrease the efficiency of the drive because of increased heat in the power devices. Shrinking cost and size Drives vary in the complexity of their designs, but the designs continue to improve. Drives come in smaller packages with each generation. The trend is similar to that of the personal computer. More features, better performance, and lower cost with successive generations. Unlike computers, however, drives have dramatically improved in their reliability and ease of use. And also unlike computers, the typical drive of today doesn't spew gratuitous harmonics into your distribution system-nor does it affect your power factor. Drives are increasingly becoming "plug and play." As electronic power components improve in reliability and decrease in size, the cost and size of VFDs will continue to decrease. While all that is going on, their performance and ease of use will only get better. Sidebar: What if you have SCRs? With the large installed base of SCRs, you might want to know how these operate. An SCR (originally referred to as a thyristor) contains a control element called a gate. The gate acts as the "turn-on" switch that allows the device to fully conduct voltage. The device conducts voltage until the polarity of the device reverses-and then it automatically "turns off." Special circuitry, usually requiring another circuit board and associated wiring, controls this switching. The SCR's output depends on how soon in the control cycle that gate turns on. The IGBT output also depends the length of time the gate is on. However, it can turn off anytime in the control cycle, providing a more precise output waveform. IGBTs also require a control circuit connected to the gate, but this circuitry is less complex and doesn't require a reversal of polarity. Thus, you would approach troubleshooting differently if you have an SCR-based drive.

How To Maintain a VFD

Do you know how to maintain Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs)? Doing so is easier than you might think. By integrating some simple, logical steps into your preventative maintenance program, you can ensure your drives provide many years of trouble-free service. Before looking at those steps, let's quickly review what a VFD is and how it works.

A Quick Overview A VFD controls the speed, torque and direction of an AC Induction motor. It takes fixed voltage and frequency AC input and converts it to a variable voltage and frequency AC output. See Training Note "What is a VFD?" for a more detailed description of VFD concepts and operating principles. In very small VFDs, a single power pack unit may contain the converter and inverter. Fairly involved control circuitry coordinates the switching of power devices, typically through a control board that dictates the firing of power components in the proper sequence. A microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP) meets all the internal logic and decision requirements. From this description, you can see a VFD is basically a computer and power supply. And the same safety and equipment precautions you'd apply to a computer and to a power supply apply here. VFD maintenance requirements fall into three basic categories:

keep it clean; keep it dry; and keep the connections tight.

Let's look at each of these. Keep it Clean Most VFDs fall into the NEMA 1 category (side vents for cooling airflow) or NEMA 12 category (sealed, dust-tight enclosure). Drives that fall in the NEMA 1 category are susceptible to dust contamination. Dust on VFD hardware can cause a lack of airflow, resulting in diminished performance from heat sinks and circulating fans (Photo 1).

Photo 1, Fan Injecting Dust into Drive Enclosure Dust on an electronic device can cause malfunction or even failure. Dust absorbs moisture, which also contributes to failure. Periodically spraying air through the heat sink fan is a good PM measure. Discharging compressed air into a VFD is a viable option in some environments, but typical plant air contains oil and water. To use compressed air for cooling, you must use air that is oil-free and dry or you are likely to do more harm than good. That requires a specialized, dedicated, and expensive air supply. And you still run the risk of generating electrostatic charges (ESD). A non-static generating spray or a reverse-operated ESD vacuum will reduce static build-up. Common plastics are prime generators of static electricity. The material in ESD vacuum cases and fans is a special, non-static generating plastic. These vacuums, and cans of non-static generating compressed air, are available through companies that specialize in static control equipment. Keep it Dry In Photo 2 you can see what happened to a control board periodically subjected to a moist environment. Initially, this VFD was wall-mounted in a clean, dry area of a mechanical room and moisture was not a problem. However, as is often the case, a well-meaning modification led to problems.

In this example, an area of the building required a dehumidifier close to the mechanical room. Since wall space was available above the VFD, this is where the dehumidifier went. Unfortunately, the VFD was a NEMA 1 enclosure style (side vents and no seal around the cover). The obvious result was water dripping from the dehumidifier into the drive. In six months, the VFD accumulated enough water to produce circuit board corrosion.

Photo 2, Corrosion on Board Traces Caused by Moisture What about condensation? Some VFD manufacturers included a type of "condensation protection" on earlier product versions. When the mercury dipped below 32 degrees Fahrenheit, the software logic would not allow the drive to start. VFDs seldom offer this protection today. If you operate the VFD all day every day, the normal radiant heat from the heatsink should prevent condensation. Unless the unit is in continuous operation, use a NEMA 12 enclosure and thermostatically controlled space heater if you locate it where condensation is likely. Keep Connections Tight While this sounds basic, checking connections is a step many people miss or do incorrectly - and the requirement applies even in clean rooms. Heat cycles and mechanical vibration can lead to sub-standard connections, as can standard PM practices. Retorquing screws is not a good idea, and further tightening an already tight connection can ruin the connection (see Sidebar). Bad connections eventually lead to arcing. Arcing at the VFD input could result in nuisance over voltage faults, clearing of input fuses, or damage to protective components. Arcing at the VFD output could result in over-current faults, or even damage to the power components. Photos 3 and 4 show what can happen. Loose control wiring connections can cause erratic operation. For example, a loose START/STOP signal wire can cause uncontrollable VFD stops. A loose speed reference wire can cause the drive speed to fluctuate, resulting in scrap, machine damage, or personnel injury.

Photo 3, Arcing Caused by Loose Input Contacts

Photo 4, Arcing Caused by Loose Output Contacts

Re-torquing - A Screwy Practice Although "re-torquing" as a way of checking tightness is common in many PM procedures, it violates basic mechanical principles and does more harm than good. A screw has maximum clamping power at a torque value specific to its size, shape, and composition. Exceeding that torque value permanently reduces the clamping power of that screw by reducing its elasticity and deforming it. Loosening and then re-torquing still reduces elasticity, which still means a loss of clamping power. Doing this to a lock washer results in a permanent 50% loss. What should you do? Use an infrared thermometer to note hot connections. Check their torque. If they have merely worked loose, you can try retightening them. Note which screws were loose, and be sure to give them an IR check at the next PM cycle. If they are loose again, replace them. Finally, don't forget the "tug test." This checks crimps, as well as screw connections. Don't do this with the drive online with the process, though, or you may cause some very expensive process disturbances.

Additional Steps 1. 2. As part of a mechanical inspection procedure, don't overlook internal VFD components. Check circulating fans for signs of bearing failure or foreign objects - usually indicated by unusual noise or shafts that appear wobbly. Inspect DC bus capacitors for bulging and leakage. Either could be a sign of component stress or electrical misuse. Photos 5 and 6 show fan and capacitor stress problems.

Photo 5, Foreign Object in Fan 3. Take voltage measurements while the VFD is in operation. Fluctuations in DC bus voltage measurements can indicate degradation of DC bus capacitors. One function of the capacitor bank is to act as a filter section (smoothing out any AC ripple voltage on the Bus). Abnormal AC voltage on the DC bus indicates the capacitors are headed for trouble. Most VFD manufacturers have a special terminal block for this type of measurement and also for

connection of the dynamic braking resistors. Measurements more than 4VAC may indicate a capacitor filtering problem or a possible problem with the diode bridge converter section (ahead of the bus). If you have such voltage levels, consult the VFD manufacturer before taking further action. With the VFD in START and at zero speed, you should read output voltage of 40VAC phase-tophase or less. If you read more than this, you may have transistor leakage. At zero speed, the power components should not be operating. If your readings are 60VAC or more, you can expect power component failure. What about spare VFDs? Store them in a clean, dry environment, with no condensation allowed. Place this unit in your PM system so you know to power it up every 6 months to keep the DC bus capacitors at their peak performance capability. Otherwise, their charging ability will significantly diminish. A capacitor is much like a battery-it needs to go into service soon after purchase or suffer a loss of usable life.

4.

Photo 6, Capacitor Failure 5. Regularly monitor heat sink temperatures. Most VFD manufacturers make this task easy by including a direct temperature readout on the Keypad or display. Verify where this readout is, and make checking it part of a weekly or monthly review of VFD operation. You wouldn't place your laptop computer outside, on the roof of a building or in direct sunlight, where temperatures could reach 115 degrees Fahrenheit or as low as -10 degrees Fahrenheit. A VFD, which is basically a computer with a power supply, needs the same consideration. Some VFD manufacturers advertise 200,000 hours-almost 23 years-of Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF). Such impressive performance is easy to obtain, if you follow these simple procedures.

The primary function of any adjustable speed drive is to control the speed, torque, acceleration, deceleration and direction of rotation of a machine. Unlike constant speed systems, the adjustable speed drive permits the selection of an infinite number of speeds within its operating range. Most multi-purpose production machines benefit from adjustable speed control, since frequently their speeds must change to optimize the machine process or adapt it to various tasks for improved product quality, production speed or safety. Lathes and other machine tools run small diameter work pieces at high speeds and large diameter pieces at low speeds to optimize the feed rate into the cutting tool. A printing press is operated at the speed that produces the best quality product, which may vary greatly with the weight and coating of paper, and the characteristics of the inks used. Also, the controlled acceleration provided by an adjustable speed drive allows the press to accelerate smoothly to prevent breaking the web of paper. A pump supplying water in a high rise building may run at very slow speeds at 3 o'clock AM to maintain system pressure, but be called upon at 3 o'clock PM to run at high speeds to provide high flow rates necessitated by water usage by the inhabitants.

While early types of adjustable speed drives based upon mechanical and hydraulic principles still remain in limited usage, the over-whelming choice today for industrial applications is the electrical adjustable speed drive. No other type offers the combined benefits of high performance, high efficiency, low maintenance, versatility and moderate initial cost. Electrical adjustable speed drives are offered in a number of basic types, but the two most versatile for general purpose applications and therefore the most common, are direct current (DC drives) and adjustable frequency (AC drives) as manufactured by Fincor Electronics. Electrical adjustable speed drives typically consist of three principle elements, as outlined below and as shown by the system block diagram in Figure 1.

FiGURE 1. Functional Block Diagram 1. OPERATOR CONTROL STATION - THE BOSS Allows the operator to start and stop the drive controller by push buttons or switches, and set the motor speed by turning a potentiometer to the desired dial setting. Operator controls may be integrated into the controller or mounted remotely from the drive controller. 2. DRIVE CONTROLLER - THE BRAINS Converts the fixed voltage and frequency of the alternating current (AC) plant power source into an adjustable power output to control the drive motor over a wide speed range. The output is established by the speed control potentiometer. The controller includes sensing circuits to hold or regulate the motor at the desired speed with variations in the source voltage and changes in motor load. The controller also includes protective circuitry and devices to prevent damage from overloads, power source transients and output power faults. 3. DRIVE MOTOR - THE MUSCLE Translates electrical energy into mechanical motion. The output is a shaft rotation (RPM), which varies in proportion to the power applied by the drive controller. The motor shaft is normally coupled to a gear reducer or other mechanical power transmission device to further reduce the motor speed to a level useable by the driven machine.

AC MOTOR CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS The synchronous speed of an AC induction motor is directly proportional to the applied frequency. Speed = 120 x Frequency No. of Motor Poles

The synchronous speed is the speed of the rotating electrical field, not the actual motor rotor speed. The difference between the synchronous speed and the full-load motor speed is called slip, which is normally expressed in percent. The percentage of slip is determined by the design of the motor, primarily the rotor resistance. NEMA has assigned code letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to standardize motor characteristics including slip. The type most commonly used is NEMA Design B with 3% slip at rated operating conditions. Figure 9 shows typical speed/torque curves for NEMA Design Band D motors.

As the applied frequency is changed, the motor will run faster or slower as shown by Figure 10. The actual full-load motor slip (as a percent of the motor synchronous speed) varies in inverse proportion to the frequency, where a 3% slip motor 60 Hz would have a 6% slip at 30 Hz or 1 1/2 % slip at 120 Hz. Motor speed is limited only by the maximum inverter output frequency, load torque requirements, and the mechanical integrity of the motor.

AC VS. DC DRIVE COMPARISON AC and DC drives both continue to offer unique benefits and features that may make one type or other better suited for certain applications. AC DRIVES MAY BE BETTER BECAUSE. . .

They use conventional, low cost, 3-phase AC induction motors for most applications. AC motors require virtually no maintenance and are preferred for applications where the motor is mounted in an area not easily reached for servicing or replacement. AC motors are smaller, lighter, more commonly available, and less expensive than DC motors. AC motors are better suited for high speed operation (over 2500 rpm) since there are no brushes, and commutation is not a problem. Whenever the operating environment is wet, corrosive or explosive and special motor enclosures are required. Special AC motor enclosure types are more readily available at lower prices. Multiple motors in a system must operate simultaneously at a common frequency/speed. It is desirable to use an existing constant speed AC motor already mounted and wired on a machine. When the application load varies greatly and light loads may be encountered for prolonged periods. DC motor commutators and brushes may wear rapidly under this condition. Low cost electronic motor reversing is required. It is important to have a back up (constant speed) if the controller should fail.

DC DRIVES MAY BE BETTER BECAUSE. . .

DC drives are less complex with a single power conversion from AC to DC. DC drives are normally less expensive for most horsepower ratings. DC motors have a long tradition of use as adjustable speed machines and a wide range of options have evolved for this purpose: Cooling blowers and inlet air flanges provide cooling air for a wide speed range at constant torque. Accessory mounting flanges and kits for mounting feedback tachometers and encoders. DC regenerative drives are available for applications requiring continuous regeneration for overhauling loads. AC drives with this capability would be more complex and expensive. Properly applied brush and commutator maintenance is minimal. DC motors are capable of providing starting and accelerating torques in excess of 400% of rated. Some AC drives may produce audible motor noise which is undesirable in some applications.