Liam Thompson

Assignment 1
GIS1402 Liam Thompson

1. a) There are four major components of a GIS, they are hardware, software, data and people and there is an additional component, method. Hardware is the computer on which the software of a GIS operates. Software refers to the computer program that provides the functions and tools required for a GIS. Data is the raw material/information collected from the field for modelling and analysis. People are the users of the GIS who develop real world applications for the GIS. The additional component, method, refers to the method the major components are utilised to have an effect on the GIS performance (Perera, 2012). b) A GIS has six functional elements, these include input, storage, manipulation, output, analysis and modelling, display, management and retrieval. All of these refer to the handling and/or processing of data. Input is simply the adding of data into a GIS (Perera, 2012). Storage is the storing of data in a digital format in a database so it is easily accessible. Manipulation refers to the tool/s used to convert, edit or alter the data. Output is the extraction or exportation of data to another place. Analysis and modelling provide insight into data through analysis and combining past results to make future predictions through modelling. Display is the display of the data once analysed and modelled onscreen and/or as a hardcopy Management is the use of database structure to track data and ensure its integrity and security. Retrieval is the ability to recall data when needed in any desired format. (Perera, 2012).

2. a) Spatial data is the amount of space between geographic features, whatever the feature may be (a lake or a hole, a building etc) on an area of land. Spatial data helps identify the specific location of geographic features and can include coordinates, longitude and latitude, if it is displayed using a vector structure, and/or cell location, row and column, if it is displayed using a raster structure. Whereas attribute data describes geographic features on a specific location e.g. length, width and elevation of the feature. Attribute data is often text-strings or numbers and is measured in either a nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio scale (Perera, 2012). b) Topology uses both spatial and attribute data to show, geographic features, the spatial distance between features and where the geographic features are in respect to

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geographic boundaries and its surroundings. Topology is important for GIS data creation, spatial query and analysis and modelling (Perera, 2012). c) Vector and raster data structures are both types of data structure that represent geographic features. Vector data structure uses points (of any value), lines and polygons to represent geographic features. The use of points and lines enables the vector structure to represent irregular polygons more truly to their actual shape, which gives vector data higher accuracy compared to raster structure, which uses a grid that can only show polygons using squares. The higher level of accuracy of the vector data structure enables it to support topology better as well. Raster data structure, although less accurate and therefore does not support topology as well as the vector data structure, has benefits to the vector data structure. The cell based structure of the raster structure, is compatible with image data as every cell of the raster structure has a value even if it has not been recorded, which enables it to represent a continuous surface (the vector data structure does not). However the raster cell can be faulted by a mixed pixel problem which occurs when geographic features are smaller than the pixel size of the raster cell (Perera, 2012). 3. a) There are four major common methods of digital data input, importing, on-screen digitising, geo-locating and converting. Importing data has two types of data, GPS data, and geo-located digital text data, which are a both readily importable and easily read. On-screen digitising involves feature tracing from digital sources such as scanned images and aerial photographs. The feature tracing is performed by a computer mouse tracing the outline of a particular geographical feature and then put into software to be displayed. On-screen digitising also requires attribute data entered for the traced geographical feature. The process of converting spatial data into geographic data known as geo-locating is another type of digital data input. Geo-locating requires data that is not geo-referenced to be entered. The last form of digital data input is converting, which is necessary if data is in the wrong format for particular software. Converting can be easy or difficult depending if the software has an import function or if pre-processing is required. However conversion may be unnecessary if interoperability is successful (Perera, 2012). b) Hardcopy data input has many sub-categories these are, tablet digitising, keyboard entry and scanning. Tablet digitising is similar to on-screen digitising, it is the tracing ...of a map, placed on a digitising tablet... (Perera, 2012), the tracing is done using a puck which is like to a computer mouse. (Perera, 2012)

Liam Thompson

4. a) When data is entered for spatial data, errors can occur. Errors can occur during entry of both types of spatial data, vector and raster. The types of errors that can occur with vector data are displayed in figure 1 below and include, incorrect positioning of points, incorrect nodes of lines, overshooting/undershooting, unclosed polygons and duplicate lines within polygons. (Perera, 2012)

Figure 1 Illustration of entry errors in vector data structure (Perera, 2012, GIS1402 Wk 5 lecture, slide 12)

The types of error that can occur within raster data entry are due to location shift, this occurs if a corner is incorrectly referenced. (Perera, 2012) It is displayed in figure 2 below.

Figure 2 Illustration of location shift error in raster data structure (Perera, 2012, GIS1402 Wk 5 lecture, slide 14)

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b) Topology displays real world features on a 2D plane. It is a set of data that represents how geographical features share geometry, and helps to define features that share common boundaries. Topology is vital for GIS data integrity and management. (ESRI, 2005) c) Topology helps rectify spatial data errors by identifying when a point does not match with the rest of the points upon building e.g. a point is overshot and creates a peak that clearly does not belong (Perera, 2012).

Figure 3 Illustrates how topology helps rectify data error (Perera, 2012, GIS1402 Wk 5 lecture, slide 20)

5.

a) A map projection is a 2D representation of real world geographical features and location using spatial and attribute data (Geospatial Training and Analysis Cooperative, 2008). It flattens latitude and longitude of a portion of the Earth so that a 2D representation can be projected on to a flat surface. In order for the data to be included and processed it must be displayed in 2D, however in doing so, 1D of information is lost and unfortunately this is unavoidable with current GIS technology. A map can be projected in one of three projection types, planar (azimuthal), conical and cylindrical. However no projection is a perfect representation of the real world. Projection is most commonly used for mapping purposes. (Perera, 2012) b) There are three types of map projection these are, planar (azimuthal), conical and cylindrical. Planar or azimuthal projection is a display of the earth split along the equator into two halves. The details of the Earth are then projected on a 2D plane, the resulting image is known as the azimuthal display. (see figure 4)

Liam Thompson

The conical projection is the display of the Earth if it was wrapped by paper cut into a cone shape then unwrapped and placed on a flat surface. (see figure 5) The third projection type is the cylindrical projection type. This type is the resulting outline of the Earth if it was wrapped in a paper rolled into a cylinder, and then unwrapped. (see figure 6) (Perera, 2012)

Figure 4 Displays the Earth using a planar projection (Perera, 2012, Wk 6 lecture, slide 23)

Figure 5 Displays the conical projection type (Perera, 2012, Wk 6 lecture slide 25)

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Figure 6 Displays cylindrical projection type (Perera, 2012, Wk 6 lecture slide 27)

6.

a) There are two types of coordinate systems for both 2D and 3D systems used within a GIS, these are, the Cartesian coordinate system and the Plane coordinate system. The Cartesian coordinate system uses x and y values. It positions features along the x and y axes within a grid and moves them by units of 1 length measurement e.g. cm, mm etc. (see figure 7) (Perera, 2012)

Figure 7 shows the Cartesian coordinate system (Perera, 2012, Wk 6 lecture slide 12)

The Plane coordinate system uses length of a straight line, referred to as a radial coordinate, and angle in degrees, which is referred to as an angular coordinate, from a

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designated point, which is known as the pole, to determine a points location. (DiBiase, 2008) (see figure 8)

Figure 8 shows comparison of Cartesian coordinate system and Plane coordinate system (DiBiase, D, Penn State University, https://www.e-education.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p18.html)

b) WGS84 (World Geodetic System) is the Earth centred datum that GPS uses to compute coordinates of receiver or point in question. GDA94 (Geocentric Datum Australia) is also an Earth centred datum that was adopted for Australia in 1994. The change from an earlier datum, AGD84 (Australian Geodetic Datum), to GDA94 was made due to a mismatch with GPS. WGS84 and GDA94 are compatible with one another. (Perera, 2012)

7.

a) A map is a 2D representation of the 3D real world. A map shows spatial features between geographical features. A map can be projected in three different projection types planar, conical and cylindrical. (Perera, 2012) b) Accuracy to the location of the real world a map is representing is key to mapping production through a GIS. A map requires accurate data that is linked to the real world. It needs to use a defined coordinate system so that it can be related to the real world and thus it also requires the use of a datum reference. Keeping these in mind should help when converting the 3D world into the 2D projection that is a map.

8.

a) A database is a digital structure for storage of data. It stores data in an organised manner so it is easily retrievable and manageable. A database management system is the software that stores, retrieves, inputs and manipulates data within a database. It allows the user to manage the data that is in a database. (Chapple, 2012)

Liam Thompson

b) A relational database organises data into tables that groups related the data. This enables the database to define structure, storage and retrieval of data and ensures integrity within the database. (Unixspace) A Hierarchical database sets data in a tree model. It organises the data into parentchild like segments. This database allows information to be repeated, this usually happens in the child data segments. The data is kept in a series of records, these record contain field values which enables the hierarchical database to organise the data like the table of the relational database. It goes through the steps of parent segment then child segment however a child segment can only have one parent segment. (Unixspace)

9.

a) Three analytical tools used in GIS: Software is that computer program that processes the data from input to manipulation to output. Many software programs come with an automatic check feature that check for inconsistencies/errors in the data and can help analyse GIS data. (Perera, 2012) Topology is a basic tool that can analyse data. Once the geographic features have been positioned the user is able see if the data works and if the spatial relationship of the features are accurate. If not, then the problem or error can be identified, addressed and then rectified. (see figure 3) Doing a simple check, to make sure data entry is correct then automatic check to join loose nodes and find and delete appropriate areas.

10.

Technology advances and development has made a major contribution to rapid growth of GIS in the past 30 years. Technology advances have made data input much easier than what it use to be. GIS software and hardware has also been made more user friendly and compact. This is likely due to the fact accessibility of digital GIS has improved and therefore designers have developed more user friendly GIS. It is now far more cost effective as well which has made GIS more attractive for investors and easier for users to purchase. Also the mining and construction boom has highlighted the need for improvement on GIS and also the demand for such products had escalated along with it. All of these factors have contributed to the rapid growth in GIS over the past 30 years.

Liam Thompson

References 1. Perera, K 2012, GIS1402: wk2.ppt, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, viewed 18 April 2012, < http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au> 2. Perera, K 2012, GIS1402: wk3.ppt, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, viewed 18 April 2012, < http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au> 3. Perera, K 2012, GIS1402: wk4.ppt, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, viewed 18 April 2012, < http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au> 4. Perera, K 2012, GIS1402: wk5.ppt, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, viewed 19 April 2012, < http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au> 5. Perera, K 2012, GIS1402: wk6.ppt, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, viewed 19 April 2012, < http://usqstudydesk.usq.edu.au> 6. Riesterer, J, Geospatial Training and Analysis Cooperative 2008, Department of Geosciences Idaho State University, Idaho, viewed 19 April 2012, <http://geology.isu.edu/geostac/Field_Exercise/topomaps/topo_map.htm> 7. Chapple, M 2012, New York Times Company, New York, viewed 19 April 2012, <http://databases.about.com/od/specificproducts/a/whatisadatabase.htm> 8. GIS Development 2012, GIS Development, Noida, India, viewed 19 April 2012, <http://www.gisdevelopment.net/tutorials/tuman008.htm> 9. Geographical Information Systems 2012, Amsatek Inc. USA, viewed 20 April 2012 <http://www.amsatek.com/GnG/gis.htm> 10. GIS Topology, 2005, ESRI, Qld, Australia, viewed 19 April 2012 <http://www.esri.com/library/whitepapers/pdfs/gis_topology.pdf> 11. Favinger, A, 2008, The Polar Coordinate System, Nebraska, USA, viewed 18 April <http://scimath.unl.edu/MIM/files/MATExamFiles/Favinger_MATpaper_Final_EDIT ED.pdf> 12. DiBiase, D, 2012, Plane Coordinate Transformations, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA, viewed 20 April <https://www.eeducation.psu.edu/natureofgeoinfo/c2_p18.html> 13. Database Models, 2012, UnixSpace, viewed 19 April 2012 <http://unixspace.com/context/databases.html>