PERITONITIS

Inflammation of the peritoneal cavity, caused by either bacteria or chemicals, can be primary or secondary, and acute
or chronic. Primary peritonitis is a rare condition in which the peritoneum is infected via the blood/lymphatic
circulation. Secondary sources of inflammation are the GI tract, ovaries/uterus, urinary system, traumatic injuries, or
surgical contaminants. Surgical intervention may be curative in localized peritonitis, as occurs with
appendicitis/appendectomy, ulcer plication, and bowel resection. If peritonitis is diffuse, medical management is
necessary before or in place of surgical treatment.

CARE SETTING
Inpatient acute medical or surgical unit

RELATED CONCERNS
Appendectomy, see Nursing Care Plan CD-ROM
Inflammatory bowel disease: ulcerative colitis, regional enteritis (Crohn’s disease, ileocolitis)
Pancreatitis
Psychosocial aspects of care
Renal dialysis: peritoneal
Sepsis/speticemia
Surgical intervention
Total nutritional support: parenteral/enteral feeding
Upper gastrointestinal/esophageal bleeding

Patient Assessment Database

ACTIVITY/REST
May report: Weakness
May exhibit: Difficulty ambulating

CIRCULATION
May exhibit: Tachycardia, diaphoresis, pallor, hypotension (signs of shock)
Tissue edema

ELIMINATION
May report: Inability to pass stool or flatus
Diarrhea (occasionally)
May exhibit: Hiccups; abdominal distension; quiet abdomen
Decreased urinary output, dark color
Decreased/absent bowel sounds (ileus); intermittent loud, rushing bowel sounds
(obstruction); abdominal rigidity, distension, rebound tenderness;
hyperresonance/tympany (ileus); loss of dullness over liver (free air in
abdomen)

FOOD/FLUID
May report: Anorexia, nausea/vomiting, thirst
May exhibit: Projectile vomiting
Dry mucous membranes, swollen tongue, poor skin turgor

PAIN/DISCOMFORT
May report: Sudden, severe abdominal pain, generalized or localized, referred to shoulder, intensified
by movement
May exhibit: Distention, rigidity, rebound tenderness; distraction behaviors; restlessness; self-focus
Muscle guarding (abdomen); flexion of knees
RESPIRATION
May exhibit: Shallow respirations, tachypnea

SAFETY
May report: Fever, chills

SEXUALITY
May report: History of pelvic organ inflammation (salpingitis), puerperal infection, septic abortion,
retroperitoneal abscess

TEACHING/LEARNING
May report: History of recent trauma with abdominal penetration, e.g., gunshot/stab wound or blunt
trauma to the abdomen; bladder perforation/ruptured gallbladder, perforated
carcinoma of the stomach, perforated gastric/duodenal ulcer, gangrenous
obstruction of the bowel, perforation of diverticulum, UC, regional ileitis;
strangulated hernia
Discharge plan DRG projected length of inpatient stay: 4.9 days
considerations: Assistance with homemaker/maintenance tasks
Refer to section at end of plan for postdischarge considerations.

DIAGNOSTIC STUDIES
CBC: WBCs elevated, sometimes more than 20,000. RBC count may be increased, indicating hemoconcentration.
Serum protein/albumin: May be decreased because of fluid shifts.
Serum amylase: Usually elevated.
Serum electrolytes: Hypokalemia may be present.
ABGs: Respiratory alkalosis and metabolic acidosis may be noted.
Cultures: Causative organism (often Escherichia coli, streptococci, staphylococcus, or rarely, pneumococcus) may be
identified from blood, exudate/secretions or ascitic fluid, cloudy peritoneal dialysate.
Abdominal x-ray: May reveal gas distension of bowel/ileus. If a perforated viscera is the cause, free air will be found
in the abdomen.
Chest x-ray: May reveal elevation of diaphragm.
Pelvic ultrasound: Can diagnose peritonitis caused by ruptured appendix or diverticulitis.
Paracentesis: Peritoneal fluid samples may contain blood, pus/exudate, amylase, bile, and creatine.

NURSING PRIORITIES
1. Control infection.
2. Restore/maintain circulating volume.
3. Promote comfort.
4. Maintain nutrition.
5. Provide information about disease process, possible complications, and treatment needs.

DISCHARGE GOALS
1. Infection resolved.
2. Complications presented/minimized.
3. Pain relieved.
4. Disease process, potential complications, and therapeutic regimen understood.
5. Plan in place to meet needs after discharge.
 NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Infection, risk for (septicemia)
Risk factors may include
Inadequate primary defenses (broken skin, traumatized tissue, altered peristalsis)
Inadequate secondary defenses (immunosuppression)
Invasive procedures
Possibly evidenced by
[Not applicable; presence of signs and symptoms establishes an actual diagnosis.]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Infection Status (NOC)
Achieve timely healing; be free of purulent drainage or erythema; be afebrile.
Risk Control (NOC)
Verbalize understanding of the individual causative/risk factor(s).

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Infection Control (NIC)

Independent
Note individual risk factors, e.g., abdominal trauma, acute Influences choice of interventions.
appendicitis, peritoneal dialysis.

Assess vital signs frequently, noting unresolved or Signs of impending septic shock. Circulating endotoxins
progressing hypotension, decreased pulse pressure, eventually produce vasodilation, shift of fluid from
tachycardia, fever, tachypnea. circulation, and a low cardiac output state.

Note changes in mental status (e.g., confusion, stupor). Hypoxemia, hypotension, and acidosis can cause
deteriorating mental status.

Note skin color, temperature, moisture. Warm, flushed, dry skin is early sign of septicemia. Later
manifestations include cool, clammy, pale skin and
cyanosis as shock becomes refractory.

Monitor urine output. Oliguria develops as a result of decreased renal perfusion,

circulating toxins, effects of antibiotics.

Maintain strict aseptic technique in care of abdominal Prevents access or limits spread of infecting
drains, incisions/open wounds, dressings, and invasive organisms/cross-contamination.
sites. Cleanse with appropriate solution.

Perform/model good handwashing technique. Monitor Reduces risk of cross-contamination/spread of infection.

staff/patient compliance.

Observe drainage from wounds/drains. Provides information about status of infection.

Maintain sterile technique when catheterizing patient, and Prevents access, limits bacterial growth in urinary tract.
provide catheter care/encourage perineal cleansing on a
routine basis.

Monitor/restrict visitors and staff as appropriate. Provide Reduces risk of exposure to/acquisition of secondary
protective isolation if indicated. infection in immunosuppressed patient.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Infection Control (NIC)

Collaborative
Obtain specimens/monitor results of serial blood, urine, Identifies causative microorganisms and helps in
wound cultures. assessing effectiveness of antimicrobial regimen.

Assist with peritoneal aspiration, if indicated. May be done to remove fluid and to identify infecting
organisms so appropriate antibiotic therapy can be
instituted.

Administer antimicrobials, e.g., gentamicin (Garamycin), Therapy is directed at anaerobic bacteria and aerobic
amikacin (Amikin), clindamycin (Cleocin), via Gram-negative bacilli. Lavage may be used to remove
IV/peritoneal lavage. necrotic debris and treat inflammation that is poorly
localized/diffuse.

Prepare for surgical intervention if indicated. Surgery may be treatment of choice (curative) in acute,
localized peritonitis, e.g., to drain localized abscess;
remove peritoneal exudates, ruptured appendix/
gallbladder; plicate perforated ulcer; or resect bowel.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Fluid Volume, deficient [mixed]

May be related to
Fluid shifts from extracellular, intravascular, and interstitial compartments into intestines and/or peritoneal
space
Vomiting; medically restricted intake; NG/intestinal aspiration
Fever/hypermetabolic state
Possibly evidenced by
Dry mucous membranes, poor skin turgor, delayed capillary refill, weak peripheral pulses
Diminished urinary output, dark/concentrated urine
Hypotension, tachycardia
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Fluid Balance (NOC)
Demonstrate improved fluid balance as evidenced by adequate urinary output with normal specific gravity,
stable vital signs, moist mucous membranes, good skin turgor, prompt capillary refill, and weight within
acceptable range.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Fluid/Electrolyte Management (NIC)

Independent
Monitor vital signs, noting presence of hypotension Aids in evaluating degree of fluid deficit/effectiveness of
(including postural changes), tachycardia, tachypnea, fluid replacement therapy and response to medications.
fever. Measure central venous pressure (CVP) if
available.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Fluid/Electrolyte Management (NIC)

Independent
Maintain accurate I&O and correlate with daily weights. Reflects overall hydration status. Urine output may be
Include measured/estimated losses, e.g., gastric suction, diminished because of hypovolemia and decreased renal
drains, dressings, Hemovacs, diaphoresis, and abdominal perfusion, but weight may still increase, reflecting tissue
girth for third spacing of fluid. edema/ascites accumulation. Gastric suction losses may
be large, and a great deal of fluid can be sequestered in
the bowel and peritoneal space (ascites).

Measure urine specific gravity. Reflects hydration status and changes in renal function,
which may warn of developing acute renal failure in
response to hypovolemia and effect of toxins. Note: Many
antibiotics also have nephrotoxic effects that may further
affect kidney function/urine output.

Observe skin/mucous membrane dryness, turgor. Note Hypovolemia, fluid shifts, and nutritional deficits
peripheral/sacral edema. contribute to poor skin turgor, taut edematous tissues.

Eliminate noxious sights/smells from environment. Limit Reduces gastric stimulation and vomiting response.
intake of ice chips. Note:Excessive use of ice chips during gastric aspiration
can increase gastric washout of electrolytes.

Change position frequently, provide frequent skin care, Edematous tissue with compromised circulation is prone
and maintain dry/wrinkle-free bedding. to breakdown.

Collaborative

Monitor laboratory studies, e.g., Hb/Hct, electrolytes, Provides information about hydration, organ function.
protein, albumin, BUN, Cr. Varied alterations with significant consequences to
systemic function are possible as a result of fluid shifts,
hypovolemia, hypoxemia, circulating toxins, and necrotic
tissue products.

Administer plasma/blood, fluids, electrolytes, diuretics as Replenishes/maintains circulating volume and electrolyte
indicated. balance. Colloids (plasma, blood) help move water back
into intravascular compartment by increasing osmotic
pressure gradient. Diuretics may be used to assist in
excretion of toxins and to enhance renal function.

Maintain NPO with nasogastric/intestinal aspiration. Reduces hyperactivity of bowel and diarrhea losses.
 NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Pain, acute
May be related to
Chemical irritation of the parietal peritoneum (toxins)
Trauma to tissues
Accumulation of fluid in abdominal/peritoneal cavity (abdominal distension)
Possibly evidenced by
Verbalizations of pain
Muscle guarding, rebound tenderness
Facial mask of pain, self-focus
Distraction behavior, autonomic/emotional responses (anxiety)
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Pain Control (NOC)
Report pain is relieved/controlled.
Demonstrate use of relaxation skills, other methods to promote comfort.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Pain Management (NIC)

Independent
Investigate pain reports, noting location, duration, Changes in location/intensity are not uncommon but may
intensity(0–10 scale), and characteristics (dull, sharp, reflect developing complications. Pain tends to become
constant). constant, more intense, and diffuse over the entire
abdomen as inflammatory process accelerates; pain may
localize if an abscess develops.

Maintain semi-Fowler’s position as indicated. Facilitates fluid/wound drainage by gravity, reducing

diaphragmatic irritation/abdominal tension, and thereby
reducing pain.

Move patient slowly and deliberately, splinting painful Reduces muscle tension/guarding, which may help
area. minimize pain of movement.

Provide comfort measures, e.g., massage, back rubs, deep Promotes relaxation and may enhance patient’s coping
breathing. Instruct in relaxation/visualization exercises. abilities by refocusing attention.
Provide diversional activities.

Provide frequent oral care. Remove noxious Reduces nausea/vomiting, which can increase intra-
environmental stimuli. abdominal pressure/pain.

Collaborative

Administer medications as indicated

Analgesics, narcotics; Reduce metabolic rate and intestinal irritation from
circulating/local toxins, which aids in pain relief and
promotes healing. Note: Pain is usually severe and may
require narcotic pain control. Analgesics may be withheld
during initial diagnostic process because they can mask
signs/symptoms.
ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Pain Management (NIC)

Collaborative
Antiemetics, e.g., hydroxyzine (Vistaril); Reduce nausea and vomiting, which can increase
abdominal pain.

Antipyretics, e.g., acetaminophen (Tylenol). Reduce discomfort associated with fever/chills.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Nutrition: imbalanced, risk for less than body requirements
Risk factors may include
Nausea/vomiting, intestinal dysfunction
Metabolic abnormalities; increased metabolic needs
Possibly evidenced by
[Not applicable; presence of signs and symptoms establishes an actual diagnosis.]
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Nutritional status (NOC)
Maintain usual weight and positive nitrogen balance.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Nutrition Management (NIC)

Independent
Auscultate bowel sounds, noting absent/hyperactive Although bowel sounds are frequently absent,
sounds. inflammation/irritation of the intestine may be
accompanied by intestinal hyperactivity, diminished
water absorption, and diarrhea.

Monitor NG tube output. Note presence of vomiting, Large amounts of gastric aspirant and vomiting/diarrhea
diarrhea. suggest bowel obstruction, requiring further evaluation.

Measure abdominal girth. Provides quantitative evidence of changes in

gastric/intestinal distension and/or accumulation of
ascites.

Assess abdomen frequently for return to softness, Indicates return of normal bowel function and ability to
reappearance of normal bowel sounds, and passage of resume oral intake.
flatus.

Weigh regularly. Initial losses/gains reflect changes in hydration, but

sustained losses suggest nutritional deficit.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Nutrition Management (NIC)

Collaborative
Monitor BUN, protein, prealbumin/albumin, glucose, Reflects organ function and nutritional status/needs.
nitrogen balance as indicated.

Advance diet as tolerated, e.g., clear liquids to soft food. Careful progression of diet when intake is resumed
reduces risk of gastric irritation.

Administer TPN as indicated. Promotes nutrient utilization and positive nitrogen

balance in patients who are unable to assimilate nutrients
in a normal fashion.

NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Anxiety [specify level]/Fear

May be related to
Situational crisis
Threat of death/change in health status
Physiological factors, hypermetabolic state
Possibly evidenced by
Increased tension/helplessness
Apprehension, uncertainty, worry, sense of impending doom
Sympathetic stimulation; restlessness; focus on self
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Anxiety Control (NOC)
Verbalize awareness of feelings and healthy ways to deal with them.
Report anxiety is reduced to a manageable level.
Appear relaxed.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Anxiety Reduction (NIC)

Independent
Evaluate anxiety level, noting patient’s verbal and Apprehension may be escalated by severe pain,
nonverbal response. Encourage free expression of increasingly ill feeling, urgency of diagnostic procedures,
emotions. and possibility of surgery.

Provide information regarding disease process and Knowing what to expect can reduce anxiety.
anticipated treatment.

Schedule adequate rest and uninterrupted periods for Limits fatigue, conserves energy, and can enhance coping
sleep. ability.

Refer to CP: Psychosocial Aspects for Care, for additional interventions.

 NURSING DIAGNOSIS: Knowledge, deficient [Learning Need] regarding condition, prognosis,
treatment, self-care, and discharge needs
May be related to
Lack of exposure/recall
Information misinterpretation
Unfamiliarity with information resources
Possibly evidenced by
Questions; request for information
Statement of misconception
Inaccurate follow-through of instruction
DESIRED OUTCOMES/EVALUATION CRITERIA—PATIENT WILL:
Knowledge: Disease Process (NOC)
Verbalize understanding of disease process and potential complications.
Identify relationship of signs/symptoms to the disease process and correlate symptoms with causative factors.
Knowledge: Treatment Regimen (NOC)
Verbalize understanding of therapeutic needs.
Correctly perform necessary procedures and explain reasons for actions.

ACTIONS/INTERVENTIONS RATIONALE
Teaching: Disease Process (NIC)

Independent
Review underlying disease process and recovery Provides knowledge base from which patient can make
expectations. informed choices.

Identify signs/symptoms requiring medical evaluation, Early recognition and treatment of developing
e.g., recurrent abdominal pain/distension, vomiting, fever, complications may prevent more serious illness/injury.
chills, or presence of purulent drainage,
swelling/erythema of surgical incision (if present).

Discuss medication regimen, schedule, and possible side Antibiotics may be continued after discharge, depending
effects. on length of stay.

Recommend gradual resumption of usual activities as Prevents fatigue, enhances feeling of well-being.
tolerated, allowing for adequate rest.

Review activity restrictions/limitations, e.g., avoid heavy Avoids unnecessary increase of intra-abdominal pressure
lifting, constipation. and muscle tension.

Demonstrate aseptic dressing change, wound care. Reduces risk of contamination. Provides opportunity to
evaluate healing process.

Emphasize importance of medical follow-up. Necessary to monitor resolution of infection and

resumption of usual activities.

POTENTIAL CONSIDERATIONS following acute hospitalization (dependent on patient’s age, physical

condition/presence of complications, personal resources, and life responsibilities)
Fatigue—decreased metabolic energy production, increased energy requirements to perform ADLs, states of
discomfort.
Pain, acute—chemical irritation of the peritoneum, prolonged healing process.