Understanding Gender Equality and Development *Mukesh Kumar Pandey Abstract The skewed development that the world

is facing today has largely been remained indifferent to just distribution of rights, resources, voice and power between men and women. However, gradually policies and resources are now being distributed symmetrically between men and women to some extent. In addition, states have recognized that investment in women`s endowment is key to the inclusive development. The economics of gender equality clarifies that gender equality is smart economics; it can enhance economic efficiency and improve other development outcomes in many ways but policy makers could not understand the economics of gender equality in time. Recent studies highlight that India has been remained behind in providing equal access to basic services between men and women and as a result, there is a wide gap in the achievement. This paper basically deals with a conceptual framework of gender equality and development and highlights economics of gender equality and understanding of gender inequality in India and concludes with a view that there seems to be a quasi zero- sum- game in establishing gender equity and a focused attention on women`s capacity building along with investment in local public goods such as water supply, sanitation, schools, health clinics, roads and forests will increase the effectiveness of investment in the country. Key Words: Gender, Gender equality, Endowment, Women Empowerment. Address: Mukesh Kumar Pandey, Boys Hostel, Room No.20, GB Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad, Jhusi-211019, Uttar Pradesh, India. E-mail: [email protected], Mob. No. 9452472668 *The Author is a Doctoral student at GB Pant Social Science Institute, Allahabad. Uttar Pradesh Acknowledgement: I am grateful to my supervisor Prof. S. K. Pant for his valuable suggestions.

Understanding Gender Equality and Development

Development not Engendered is Endangered (Human Development Report 1995)

Introduction In the era of globalization, over the years, the world has seen tremendous achievement on growth front in terms of increasing GDP of countries and world trade volume, increase in consumption level of individuals, removal from many fatal diseases etc. on the ground of great technological progress affecting all aspects of life in a better way to a great extent. But the benefit of this growth has been remained limited to one half of the world. Though this one half of the world enjoys the stage of high mass consumption1, other half still lacks in basic needs and rights. And this other half of the world could be appropriated to Women. Meaning is that the skewed development path that the world is facing today is indifferent to just distribution of rights, resources, voice and power among men and women. In a broad sense, irrespective of consideration of gender aspects of society, development occurred, till that date. Though globalization and technological progress has opened new vistas for women in some aspects, but at the same time, they (Women) have been used by players in the market through commoditification. But now gender is central to every arena of developmental world and policies and resources are being distributed symmetrically to some extent. In this context, this paper basically deals with a conceptual framework of gender equality and development. The paper briefly reflects a light on economics of gender equality and understanding of gender equality in India. Gender refers to socially constructed roles and socially learned behaviors and expectations associated with females and males. Women and men are different biologically. Women can give birth to and breast-

feed children; men cannot. In most of the world adult men are physically larger than adult women. And women and men experience a number of different biologically based health risks that require different medical responses. All cultures interpret and elaborate these innate biological differences into social expectations about what behaviors and activities are appropriate for males and females and what rights, resources, and power they possess. Like race, ethnicity, and class, gender is a social category that largely establishes one's life chances, shaping one's participation in society and in the economy. Although some societies do not have racial or ethnic divides, all societies have gender asymmetries-differences and disparities- to varying degrees. Gender roles and relations can vary considerably across societies. But there are also some striking similarities. For example, nearly all societies give the primary responsibility for the care of infants and young children to women and girls, and that for military service and national security to men. Gender roles and relationships evolve out of interactions among biological, technological, economic, and other societal constraints. Some social scientists argue that gender roles originally reflected efficient survival strategies and sexual divisions of labor, but that as societies have advanced technically and economically these gender asymmetries have become both inefficient and limiting-as gender norms have changed more slowly than the factors that created them. (World Bank 2001: 34) Therefore, in all countries across the world, women and men differ in their ability to exercise freedoms of choices, control on resources, move freely, to have a voice in family and influence policy, freedom from the risk of violence etc. Women and their affair with tears has been the common phenomenon throughout the world, they are toys in the hands of their destiny. As highlighted in WDR ( World Development Report) 2006 that young girls leave their village to join their husbands family. Marriage is the gift of a daughter. In the new household, the girl is acutely vulnerable with no income earning opportunities, no property, and no possibility of returning home permanently. Giving birth to a child improves her status particularly if its a boy. But family planning practices are limited, leading to high fertility rates and short birth-spacing. Repeated pregnancies take an enormous toll on womens general health and put their lives

at risk at the time of delivery. Old age is strongly associated with widowhood, in part because of the typically large age difference between husbands and wives. To survive, widows depend overwhelmingly on adult sons. These unequal social and economic structures tend to be readily reproduced. If women has not been educated and has grown up to believe that good, decent women abide by existing social norms, she is likely to transmit this belief to her daughters and to enforce such behavior among her daughters-inlaw. An inequality trap may thus emerge, preventing generations of women from getting educated and taking up economic opportunities on a par with man, reducing their ability to make informal choices, and to realize their potential as individuals (World Bank 2005: 20). And a society in which there is no discrimination against anyone based on his or her sex could be said to have achieved gender equality and more generally, gender equality could be defined as full equality between the sexes. A more rights based definition of gender equality can be developed with reference to two of the fundamental international instruments in this regard. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights2 (1949) declares that all human are born free and equal in dignity and rights, and the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women 3 (1979) describes it as same rights and same opportunities which must be available to all men and women in various fields of human activity, including not limited to education, marital legislation, and labour. And to transform this gender equality in to gender equity empowering women has been a key strategy around the globe. Empowerment refers broadly to the expansion of freedom of choice and action to shape one`s life. It implies control over resources and decisions (Narayan 2005:2). Following Amartya Sen, we see development as a process of expanding freedoms equally for all people. In this view of development, gender equality is a core objective in itself. So, just as development means less income poverty or better access to justice, it should also mean fewer gaps in well-being between males and females. This view point is also evident in the international development community`s recognition that women`s empowerment and gender equality are development objectives in their own right as embodied in Millennium Development Goals 4. It is seen as well in the adoption and widespread ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All forms of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1979, the convention established a comprehensive framework for the advancement of women and has been ratified to date by 187 countries (World Bank 2012: 30) .Thus, the establishment of a just and equitable society will ensure development. It comprises the welfare of whole human being and is not surrounded by the boundary of merely a democratic nation. Further, only well-being of women will not transform automatically in to desired outcomes, focusing on women`s agency is more required. By agency we mean an individual`s (or group`s) ability to make effective choices and to transform those choices into desired outcomes. Perhaps the most immediate argument for focusing on women`s agency may be precisely the role that such an agency can play in removing the inequities that depress the well-being of women. (Sen 1999:191) Links between Gender equality and Poverty Reduction

Many variables are critical for poverty reduction, both on the investment climate side and on the empowerment side. However, one of the key conclusions of recent research is that, other things being equal, gender inequality retards both economic growth and poverty reduction. Among the links between gender equality and growth are: Investment in human capital, especially girls and womens education and health, raises productivity. Educated, healthy women are more able to engage in productive activities, find formal sector employment, earn higher incomes and enjoy greater returns to schooling than are uneducated women who suffer from poor nutrition and health, or are victims of domestic violence. Moreover, educated women give greater emphasis to schooling their own children, thereby improving the productivity of the next generation. Increased access to productive assets and resources also raises productivity. Many

societies have institutions and practices that limit womens access to productive assets and resources such as land, financial services and employment in the formal sector. Land titling is especially problematic. Women rarely have title to land, even when they are its primary users, and are thus often unable to use land as collateral for credit. Evidence from several African countries suggests that female farmers are as efficient as male farmers, but are less productive because they have less access to productive inputs and human capital. In Sub-Saharan Africa, if womens access to agricultural inputs was on a par with mens, total agricultural outputs could increase by 620 percent. Time poverty created by poor infrastructure reduces productivity. In many settings, including the middle income countries of Eastern, Central and Southern Europe, women work significantly more hours per day than men; in many low income countries, they spend long hours collecting fuel and water. This time poverty limits their ability to engage in income generating activities and to participate in community affairs. Because the gender-based division of labor extends to children, womens time poverty means that girls are often kept out of school to help with household work. Information and Communications Technologies (ICTs) can enable greater participation of poor women and men in the world economy. ICTs have an enormous potential to reach dispersed rural populations and provide them with education and training, job opportunities, access to markets, availability of information important for their economic activities, and greater participation in the political process. For example, Tortas Peru is a women-owned enterprise that uses the Internet to reach and service a wider market, selling cakes and desserts through their website, mainly targeting the 2 million Peruvians living outside the country, who send orders by email. With just three hours of instruction, the housewifemembers of the network, who bake and

deliver the cakes, learn to use email, find the website, and interact with clients through public computer booths. Not only does gender inequality exacerbate poverty; poverty also exacerbates inequality between males and females. Inequalities between girls and boys in access to schooling or health care are more acute among the poor than among those with higher incomes. Whether measured in terms of command over productive resources, or in terms of power to influence the political process, poor men tend to have less influence in the community than non-poor men, and poor women generally have the least influence. These disparities disadvantage women and girls and limit their capacity to participate in and benefit from development . Not only does gender inequality exacerbate poverty; poverty also exacerbates inequality between males and females. Inequalities between girls and boys in access to schooling or health care are more acute among the poor than among those with higher incomes. Whether measured in terms of command over productive resources, or in terms of powe rto influence the political process, poor men tend to have less influence in the community than non-poor men, and poor women generally have the least influence. These disparities disadvantage women and girls and limit their capacity to participate in and benefit from development.( World Bank 2003:7) Links Between Gender Equality and Reducing hunger.

One-hundred-and-fifty million children in low and middle income countries are malnourished; at current rates of improvement, 140 million children will still be malnourished in 2020.9 There is a strong negative association between the mothers schooling and child mortality, because low maternal levels of education translate into malnutrition and poor quality of care for children. The latest Demographic and Health Surveys, for more than 40 developing countries, show that the mortality rate of children under five is lower in households where mothers have some primary

schooling than in households where they have no schooling, and is much lower in households where mothers have secondary schooling.10 A study of 63 countries showed that gains in womens education made the single largest contribution to declines in malnutrition in 1970-1995, accounting for 43 percent of the total, followed by food availability, the governments commitment to health at local and national levels, and womens relative status .11 In the fight against hunger, it is important also to note that women and girls are more affected by hunger than men and boys, as females often are the ones to eat last and least in poor families. (World Bank 2003: 8)

Economics of Gender equality and Women Empowerment Gender equality is smart economics; it can enhance economic efficiency and improve other development outcomes in three ways. First, removing barriers that prevent women from having the same access as men to education, economic opportunities, and productive inputs can generate broad productivity gains- gains all the more important in a more competitive and globalised world. Second, improving women`s absolute and relative status feeds many other development outcomes, including those for their children. Third, leveling the playing field- where women and men have equal chances to become socially and politically active, make decisions, and shape policies- is likely to lead over time to more representative, and more inclusive, institutions and policy choices and thus to a better development path. Besides, women are very important players in the green economy and they are true agents of change. In addition, there is a range of economic and social multiplier effects which are generated by improvements in women`s access to and control over economic resources- at both micro and macro level. At the micro level, these efforts operate through the enhancement of women`s ability to increase the productivity of their livelihood efforts and allocate the saved time and energy to investments in children`s

health and education, their own personal development and participation in community activities. At the macro level they strengthen the pool of labour and talent that economies can draw and increase national per capita productivity. While the positive impact of gender equality on economic growth is supported by a strong body of evidence, the impact of economic growth on gender equality can vary considerably, including in relation to employment, well-being and broader indicators of gender equality. Economic growth has promoted women`s formal employment opportunities, particularly in developing countries within export industries. However, it has had little impact on other aspects of gender equality within these countries. The impact on women`s life expectancy is limited, and reduction of maternal mortality remains the Millennium Development Goal on which the least progress has been achieved. There has been little influence on the representation of women at higher levels of economic-decision making or on participation in political life. Economic growth is most likely to have a positive impact on women`s empowerment when it is mediated by explicit policies promoting women`s education, employment, human rights and bargaining power (United Nations2009:85). In this way, there is growing literature on how to evaluate the role and importance of empowerment in poverty reduction and development. The interest in evaluation has emerged with the rising recognition of empowerment as a promising source of more effective, and more inclusive, development. It is seen particularly as a means of increasing the capacity of poor people and subordinate groups to influence development processes. (Petesh, Smulovitz, Walton, 2005:39). An empowerment approach to Inclusive development can strengthen good governance, which in turn enhances growth prospects. When citizens are engaged, exercise voice, and demand accountability, government performance improves and corruption is harder to sustain. Citizen participation can also build consensus in support of difficult reforms needed to create a positive investment climate and inclusive growth. In addition, the empowerment agenda supports development effectiveness by promoting growth patterns that are propoor. Because, when poverty combines with gender inequality, the result is acute failure of central human capabilities (Nussbaum 2000:3). This involves reducing inequalities by investing in poor people`s

capabilities through education and access to basic health care as well as by increasing their access to land, financial capital sand markets ( Narayan2005:2). Thus, state has an important role to play in promoting the investment in women and poor people`s capabilities. The Economic Rationale for State Intervention A compelling argument for state intervention is the spillover effects of greater equality, what economists refer to as positive externalities. Gender equality benefits those directly affected, such as women who experience discrimination, and society as a whole. Especially at low incomes (as in much of South Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and parts of East Asia) , more schooling , resources, and autonomy for women can help alleviate some of the worst manifestations of poverty , including child mortality and malnutrition. And there is now growing evidence that gender equality is positively associated with better living conditions and with cleaner governments. By implication, government action is also justified when it reduces the negative externalities of gender inequalities. That is individuals or groups, if left on their own, can indulge their prejudices (and fears) at the expense of others. But if individuals or groups internalize this harm they will be more invested in ending or reducing gender inequalities. This is the case when men who have daughters become more aware and concerned about abuses against women. Are there negative externalities when women discriminate against other women and girls? Yes, because the harm a woman directly experiences (or internalizes) is only a portion of the total harm that her action causes. The presence of externalities, coupled with the high human costs of gender inequality, makes a powerful case for public intervention. And just as the costs and benefits of achieving gender equality go beyond what any individual experiences, what is required to reduce inequalities often falls outside what an individual can reasonably accomplish. Entrenched social norms, customs, and legal institutions that create gender inequalities are extremely difficult, if not impossible, for an individual or small group to change. Moreover, market failures in the availability of information- which contributions to gender discrimination- are pervasive and costly to overcome. For example, more information in the labour market on worker productivity has large externalities (that is, gains beyond what one employer

internalizes) - but accurate information may be too costly for one employer to acquire. So, employers use information markers, such ads sex, though they are flawed and unfair. Subsidizing improved availability of information in the labour market is thus something the government can do to promote gender equality. The state can intervene in many ways. It can tax and subsidize, persuade and regulate, prohibit and punish, or provide services. It can tax to finance (or subsidize) investments to counterbalance gender inequalities in investments by others-such as when it subsidizes more schooling for girls or more job skills training for women. It can directly prohibit prejudicial behavior-such as when it requires enterprises to hire workers on the basis of skills rather than on the basis of sex, and sanctions or fines violators. (World Bank2001: 100). Thus state has crucial role in just distribution of resources between men and women. Understanding Gender inequality in India The problem of gender inequality in India has been more acute. This has been perhaps the most important cause and effect both for mass poverty and exclusion in the economy. India`s record in growth and development has gone hand in hand with gender bias in indicators of welfare, capability, work participation and income .The pattern of development in Indi has been negative effects on the position of women in India. Women`s position at work, education, health and political participation has worsened. The benefits of growth have gone to particular groups in society and to particular region. State-wise data analysis of gender differentiated information in the areas of women`s survival, freedoms and visibility clearly indicates wide gaps in the achievement. While a lot has been achieved in some parameters, much needs to be done in others. Similarly, some states have done amazingly well in women`s upliftment, but others lag behind. Interestingly, a small state like Goa is projecting figures above the national average in terms of access to education high enrolment and low dropout. There is also relatively high percentage of women`s access to salaried employment, low percentage of below mass body index among women, low infant mortality, and less crimes against women in both the private and public domain.

At the same time, data also points to the reality that unless a comprehensive multipronged approach to gender equality is conceptualized and orchestrated along with dedication and perseverance, a girl`s survival will not essentially translate into securing her freedoms and further her visibility. The gender data has been analyzed by UN Women in collaboration with the national commission for women and brought out in a report titled Understanding Gender Equality in India-2012. States like Assam that have successfully ensured the survival of the girl child have not been able to translate this advantage into reduced maternal mortality. Similarly, Sikkim and West Bengal which have progressed well in the areas of girl`s enrolment in schools have not been able to retain girls in schools and are showing a very high dropout rate between classes I to IX. These deprivations have further snowballed in these states in to high employment rates and the concentration of women in casual, unskilled and low paid work. These states have also record levels of violence against women higher than the national average. Some states like Bihar, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh continue to record huge gender deficits in the areas of women`s survival, their freedoms and their visibility. Gender poverty seems to be entrenched in a number of states across the country, the report suggests. Figures related to violence against women in the country are also dismal. According to the report, 30 percent of the women in India experienced physical violence while 8 percent experienced sexual violence. While Bihar registered the highest number of cases of physical violence against women, West Bengal tops the list in terms of number of sexual offences. It is not just at home that women face discrimination. Our constitution is not spared either. Women occupy less than 8 percent of the cabinet position, less than 9 percent of seats in high courts and Supreme Court and less than 12 percent of administrators and managers are women, according to the report. The issue of multidimensional poverty is extremely contextual to the status of women in India because although a lot of work has been done on the condition of women, the position of women still remains unaddressed. Viewing gender concerns through the lens of multidimensional poverty and capability poverty is now a critical imperative. It is time that we create a framework of analysis so that national programmes move beyond merely addressing income poverty and begin to include an expanded response so that the income

generated is used to create capacities that improve women`s survival, enhance women`s freedoms and make women more visible (Dhar 2012:6). Similarly, In terms of the gender inequality index (GII), India with a value of 0.617 ranks 129 out of a total of 187 countries as per HDR 2011. The GII captures the loss in achievement due to gender disparities in the areas of reproductive health, empowerment , and labour force participation with values ranging from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (total inequality). The GII value of 0.617 indicates a higher degree of gender discrimination in India compared to countries like China (0.209), Pakistan (0.573), Bangladesh (0.550), Bhutan (0.495), and Sri Lanka (0.419). It is even higher than the global average 0.492 report says. (Economic Survey 2011-12:303) The ministry of Women and Child Development calculated the GDI for 1996 and 2006 for states/UTs. The all India GDI for 2006 was.590 compared to .514 in 1996. The HDI for the same was .605 and .530, respectively, as calculated by MWCD .This shows that the loss in HDI on account of gender inequalities (which is the difference between HDI and GDI) has decreased over the decade, albeit only marginally. Goa had the highest GDI in 2006. Some of the other states doing well in terms of GDI were Kerala, Delhi, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, and north-eastern states (Excluding Assam). They are also the states that perform well on HDI. The lowest GDI was registered by Bihar in both time periods. Poorer states like Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh were among the worst performers on GDI. The loss in HDI due to gender inequalities was .015 for India as a whole in 2006. Among the states, it was the highest in Delhi, where it has increased over the decade. On the other hand, the difference between HDI and GDI was the lowest in Himachal Pradesh, followed by Punjab, Uttarakhand, and Chhattisgarh. It is heartening to know that Punjab, which has historically had adverse sex-ratio, has shown more gender-friendly human development. (India HDR 2011:31-32). One of the most drastic pictures in census 2011 is the worrisome decline in the child sex ratio (CSR) because of not effective implementation of the Pre-conception and Pre-Natal diagnostic techniques (Prohibition of Sex Selection) Act, or PCPNDT Act5. Medical termination of pregnancy

(MPT) Act6 is liberal and that the proliferations of across-the-counter abortion methods, including the availability of small and portable ultrasound machines, have put the girl at risk. To understand gender inequality in India, India Human Development Report 2011 analyzes it on the basis of LFPR (Labour force Participation Rate) also. According To India HDR 2011, employment has a very important role in enhancing human capabilities. Employment is necessary for promoting better health and education not only for those who are employed, but also for those who are dependent on them. In addition, it provides a sense of dignity to the individual. One of the biggest challenges facing the country today is to productively and gainfully employ its growing labor force, which is necessary for attaining the objective of inclusive growth. In India HDR 2011 it has been observed that LFPR was 37.8 in 2009-10. This higher female LFPR in rural area highlights poorer access to education for earlier generation. The poor access to education was on the reasons for higher LFPR in rural area particularly for female. Moreover, the participation of rural female in agricultural tasks, despite lower wages, is responsible for the higher Female LFPR in rural area. Hence better education access shows better employment opportunity, but lack of access to education shows lack of access to decent work and lack of access to decent work is a major cause of poverty among women (United Nations 2009:VII). Thus in rural India, higher LFPR for female cannot be understood as a indicator of increasing well-being of women. Thus it is clear that an indicator of empowerment is context specific. In some sense LFPR may be an indicator of empowerment but in other sense like in Rural India in certain circumstances it will not serve the purpose of an indicator of empowerment rather it points towards reality of paid work. However, well-being of women is closely linked to the opportunities they have in education, health, and economic and political participation. Government has been operationalising this approach through legislative and programmatic interventions as well as by mainstreaming gender into the development planning process. (See box 1). But problem is that there is no prior assumption which can serve the purpose of a suitable indicator of women empowerment and it further generates false policy formulation.

Sen also challenges the underlying assumption that empowerment of women is a consequence of engagement in paid employment. He challenges the notion that a woman`s well-being can be read directly from her positioning as an autonomous individual, regardless of her affective and economic relationships with her family or household. Instead he demonstrates that women`s material and social status derives in part from how resources are distributed within households and communities, a distribution that will be affected both by the acknowledgement of her paid contributions to the household. This more nuanced approach to understanding the link between women`s paid work and notion of empowerment is helpful because it challenges the assumption that women`s empowerment can be conceptualized in isolation from family, kin and community relations. Instead, it highlights the ways in which earning money may extend women`s options, but may also intensify their workload and responsibilities without necessarily increasing their autonomy (Pearson2008:206). Similarly in the case of micro credit and micro

enterprises, the relationship between women`s economic activity and empowerment is as complicated and context specific as it is in the case of paid work. Despite all efforts made by Central and state governments in India, It is harder to say that they are trying to adopt empowerment led inclusive development, except few govt. run programs which are focusing on women and child development. Empowerment through SHGs is an important step but it has shortcomings too. As Swaminathan in her study observes that:

The institutions of SHGs had a pervasive presence in almost all the villages that we visited. However, what came
out quite clearly was that the nature of activities and the ability of SHGs to sustain these activities had a lot to do with the general level of economic activity in the village, the cohesiveness of the village population, plus the institutional support provided by the panchayats. The women in almost all the villages were also aware of the limits of SHG-sponsored activities and realized that while their SHGs could tackle short-term contingencies and support them in times of crises, the SHGs were no alternative to large-scale employment, good infrastructure and functioning public institutions- in all of which the state has a primary role to play.

(Swaminathan 2008:48)

That is why despite a big network of SHGs for livelihood promotion and women empowerment in our country do not transform itself into a source of Inclusive development. Discussion and Conclusion This perpetual inequality between men and women requires a rethinking of development from the view point of morality and ethics. And provisioning gender equality and women empowerment is embedded in moral and ethical aspects also. In this regard state has first responsibility for creating such opportunities and environment in which women feel themselves free, safe, and can possess self stream. The economics of gender equality and empowerment proves that the world is lagging behind in achieving its potential growth. An equitable distribution of resources in the women`s endowment (health and education) will create multiplier effect through increase in effectiveness of investment. But only provisioning is not sufficient, equity in rights and power will make them worthy enough to actively participate in economical, political and social system. On account of this more aggressive participation, state and its institutions will be transformed in favour of This Second Sex7, as a result, new laws will come in practice, and existing social norms will be challenged . At the same time, investment in those local public goods, which fundamentally affects the well-being of women, must be given priority. Since gender differences in access to economic opportunities are driven in part by differences in time use that result from deeprooted norms for care and housework. Improvements in infrastructure services- especially water and electricity can help free up women`s time spent on domestic and care work. Electrification in rural South Africa, for instance, has increased women`s labor force participation by about 9 per cent; in Bangladesh, it has led to more leisure time for women. In Pakistan, putting water sources closer to the home was associated with increased time allocated to market work. Other studies show no impact on market work but noticeable impacts on leisure time, which also increase women`s welfare (World Bank 2012:27). Moreover, investment for economic growth will not necessarily increase the well-being of women but investment in the well-being of women will certainly increase the growth rate of the economy. That is

why there must be a shift in policy formulation which incorporates equity based development. A women empowerment led development strategy should be identified and implemented. As far as India is concerned, gender inequality across states and individuals is all pervasive. Deeply rooted corruption in state institutions and its functionaries has diverted funds from actual beneficiaries to the hands of rich and powerful people of state and its affiliations. Recent scam in Uttar Pradesh in NRHM (National Rural Health mission) is a crude example of this. This has further aggravated income inequality in India. Thus, corruption in governance perpetuates the existing gap between rich and poor, men and women. Besides, lack of political will in implementing the existing laws related to women`s rights on land, property is also a major cause behind the deprivation of women in the country. However, the redrafted Marriage Laws (Amendment) Bill,2010 cleared by the Union Cabinet is a welcome move in this regard that aims to give separated or divorced women an equal share in husband`s property. It is also evident that there is no single route to establish gender equality in the country. In one way, paid work outside the home can increase confidence of woman, increase her social networking, and give power to raise voice against exploitation, but in another way it can increase domestic violence too. Increasing use of technology in medical sciences has saved and improved the life of woman but at the same time its

adverse impact on child sex ratio in the country cannot be ignored. Globalisation and market economy have given new opportunities to women and girls in many emerging sectors like services but it has intensified the process of women commoditification too. They have been strategically employed as a source of catalyst for increasing the selling of MNCs` produce in the global market. However, this argument may be opposed by few scholars and writers on the ground of increasing share of women in domestic and global economy. Therefore, improvement in one area of gender equity is off-set by disimprovement in other and net improvement in output remains zero or negligible, thus, it seems to be a quasi zero-sum-game8 in establishing gender equity. Perhaps all states across the world are unable to understand the nature of the problem regarding women. The meaning of the whole discussion is that doing gender equality is doing economics but converse

does not hold good always, and policy makers could not understand this economics of gender equality in time and this ignorance has been a major policy fault regarding establishing a just world. Finally, investing in women`s access to land, better capacities as farmers in terms of credit, fertilizers, the removal of restrictive barriers in terms of inheritance rights, land ownership and so on, can actually unleash a lot of potential. And they must be given the opportunity to make a difference. This is where governments everywhere have a role to play, along with the International community and civil society organizations, including women`s groups.

Box 1: Empowerment of Women

Women and education: The National Literacy Mission or Saakshar Bharat targeted female literacy as a critical instrument of women's empowerment. This has led to an increase in literacy amongst women from 53.67 per cent (Census 2001) to 65.46 per cent (Census 2011). For the first time, out of the total of 217.70 million literates added during the decade, women (110.07million) outnumbered men. Similarly, the SSA has had positive outcome for girl`s enrolment ratio. However, the challenge is to translate the high enrolment into high attendance rate.

Women and Health: Implementation of the NRHM has resulted in an improvement in many development indicators for women. As per the India Human Development Report, fertility rates have come down and have reached replacement levels in a number of states; MMR has come down to 212 per 100,000 live births in 2009 from 301 in 2003. IMR, though still high, has fallen to 50 per 1000 in 2009. Institutional deliveries have raised from 39 per cent in 2006 to 78 per cent in 2009.

Women and the Economy: The participation of women in the workforce, the quality of work allotted to them, and their contribution to the GDP are indicators of the extent of their being mainstreamed into the economy. The National Skill Development Programme (NSDP) has identified 231 modular courses for women. It is critical that the training has relevance to the changing labour markets. Efforts are needed to link skill development programmes to the NSDP to ensure relevance and enhance employability. An important strategy for financial inclusion of women, which is crucial for their integration into the economy, has been micro-finance. The model encourages access of SHGs to banks both as a means of savings and as providers of loan services. By March 2010, 69.53 lakh SHGs including those formed under the SGSY had been covered under the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural Development's (NABARD) SHG-bank linkage programme. Of these 76 per cent are exclusively women SHGs, accounting for 72.5 per cent of savings and 82 per cent of outstanding loans.

Promoting Gender Mainstreaming through Gender Budgeting (GB) : Recognizing that women, constituting 48 per cent of India's population, lag behind men on many social indicators like health, education, and economic opportunities and warrant special attention due to their vulnerability and lack of access to resources, GB, as a tool for achieving gender mainstreaming, has been adopted by the government in 2005. GB is not an accounting exercise but an ongoing process to ensure that the benefits of development reach women as much as men. It entails incorporating a gender perspective at all levels and stages of the budgetary process. The first step in this direction was the establishment of Gender Budgeting Cells in 56 ministries/departments at union level. A significant breakthrough was the introduction of the GB Statement in 2005- 6, which is placed in parliament with the Union Budget documents every year. It serves as a reporting mechanism and provides an indication of the funds flowing to women. Over the years, the number of ministries/departments reporting in the GB Statement has gone up from 9 (2005-6) to 29 (2011-12). The magnitude of GB allocations as a percentage of total budgets has also gone up from 2.79 per cent in 2005-6 to 6.22 per cent in 2011-12.

National Mission for Empowerment of Women (NMEW) : The NMEW, an umbrella mission to strengthen inter-sectoral convergence and facilitate the process of coordination of all the women's welfare and socio-economic development programmes across ministries and departments, was launched on 8 March 2010 to ensure economic and social empowerment of women. The NMEW is piloting the 'convergence model' across the country in 32 select districts with the aim of bridging the gap between demand and supply of women-related services by undertaking realistic estimates of the demand, creating greater awareness about women-based schemes and programmes of the government, augmenting the demand for various services/ schemes for women, and connecting them with the service providers. The model includes introduction of convergence-cum facilitation centres for women at district, tehsil / block and village levels. The first such pilot convergence project was launched in Pali district in Rajasthan on 16 September 2011 with the opening of 150 village-level centres.

Source: Economic Survey 2011-12:331 Notes

1. High mass consumption is the final stage of growth in Rostow`s Stages of Economic Growth ( 1960)in which society shifts from the problems of production to problems of consumption and welfare in the widest sense and a country wishes to raise consumption level of people in general beyond basic foods, shelter and clothing.

2. Has been stated in article 1 of United Nations Declaration of Human rights 1948, UN 1949.

3. CEDAW is an International Convention adopted in 1979 by the United Nations General Assembly, and an international bill of rights for women. It came into force on 3 September 1981.

4. In 2000, 189 countries made a promise to free people from extreme poverty and multiple deprivations. This pledge became the Eight Millennium Development Goals to be achieved by 2015, in which promoting gender equality and empower women is a key goal.

5. An act to provide for the prohibition of sex selection, before or after conception, for regulation of pre-natal diagnostic technique, and for the prevention of their misuse for sex determination leading to female foeticide, and, for matters connected therewith on incidental thereto.

6. A 1971 Act to provide for the termination of certain pregnancies by registered medical practioners and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

7. The Second Sex by Simoun de Beauvoir first published in French as Le Deaurieme Sex, 1949.

8. In game theory and economic theory, a zero-sum-game is a mathematical representation of a situation in which participant`s gain (or loss) of utility is exactly balanced by the losses (or gains) of the utility of the other participants.

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