Fuel Choice During Exercise Is Determined by Intensity and Duration of Activity The fuels used in anaerobic exercises sprinting,

for example differ from those used in aerobic exercises such as distance running. The selection of fuels during these different forms of exercise illustrates many important facets of energy transduction and metabolic integration. ATP directly powers myosin, the protein immediately responsible forconverting chemical energy into movement (Chapter 34). However, the amount of ATP in muscle is small. Hence, thepower output and, in turn, the velocity of running depend on the rate of ATP production from other fuels. As shown inTable 30.3, creatine phosphate (phosphocreatine) can swiftly transfer its high-potential phosphoryl group to ADP to generate ATP (Section 14.1.5). However, the amount of creatine phosphate, like that of ATP itself, is limited. Creatine phosphate and ATP can power intense muscle contraction for 5 to 6 s. Maximum speed in a sprint can thus be maintained for only 5 to 6 s (see Figure 14.7). Thus, the winner in a 100-meter sprint is the runner who slows down the least. A 100-meter sprint is powered by stored ATP, creatine phosphate, and anaerobic glycolysis of muscle glycogen. The conversion of muscle glycogen into lactate can generate a good deal more ATP, but the rate is slower than that of phosphoryl-group transfer from creatine phosphate. During a ~10-second sprint, the ATP level in muscle drops from 5.2to 3.7 mM, and that of creatine phosphate decreases from 9.1 to 2.6 mM. The essential role of anaerobic glycolysis is manifested in the elevation of the blood-lactate level from 1.6 to 8.3 mM. The release of H+ from the intensely active muscle concomitantly lowers the blood pH from 7.42 to 7.24. This pace cannot be sustained in a 1000-meter run (~132 s) for two reasons. First, creatine phosphate is consumed within a few seconds. Second, the lactate produced would cause acidosis. Thus, alternative fuel sources are needed. The complete oxidation of muscle glycogen to CO2 substantially increases the energy yield, but this aerobic process is a good deal slower than anaerobic glycolysis. However, as the distance of a run increases, aerobic respiration, or oxidative phosphorylation, becomes increasingly important. For instance, part of the ATP consumed in a 1000-meter run must come from oxidative phosphorylation. Because ATP is produced more slowly by oxidative phosphorylation than by glycolysis (see Table 30.3), the pace is necessarily slower than in a 100-meter sprint. The championship velocity for the 1000-meter run is about 7.6 m/s, compared with approximately 10.2 m/s for the 100-meter event (Figure 30.19). The running of a marathon (26 miles 385 yards, or 42,200 meters), requires a different selection of fuels and is characterized by cooperation between muscle, liver, and adipose tissue. Liver glycogen complements muscle glycogen as an energy store that can be tapped. However, the total body glycogen stores (103 mol of ATP at best) are insufficient to provide the 150 mol of ATP needed for this grueling ~2-hour event. Much larger quantities of ATP can be obtained by the oxidation of fatty acids derived from the breakdown of fat in adipose tissue, but the maximal rate of ATP generation is slower yet than that of glycogen oxidation and is more than tenfold slower than that with creatine phosphate. Thus, ATP is generated much more slowly from high-capacity stores than from limited ones, accounting for the different velocities of anaerobic and aerobic events. ATP generation from fatty acids is essential for distance running. However, a marathon would take about 6 hours to run if all the ATP came from fatty acid oxidation, because it is much slower than glycogen oxidation. Elite runners consume about equal amounts of glycogen and fatty acids during a marathon to achieve a mean velocity of 5.5 m/s, about half that of a 100-meter sprint. How is an optimal mix of these fuels achieved? A low blood-sugar level leads to a high glucagon/ insulin ratio, which in turn mobilizes fatty acids from adipose tissue. Fatty acids readily enter muscle, where they are degraded by oxidation to acetyl CoA and then to CO2. The elevated acetyl CoA level decreases the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex to block the conversion of pyruvate into acetyl CoA. Hence, fatty acid oxidation decreases the funneling of sugar into the citric acid cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is spared so that just enough remains available at the end of the marathon. The simultaneous use of both fuels gives a higher mean velocity than would be attained if glycogen were totally consumed before the start of fatty acid oxidation.

Cramp Cramps are unpleasant, often painful sensations caused by muscle contraction or overshortening. Common causes of skeletal muscle cramps include muscle fatigue, low sodium, and low potassium. Smooth muscle cramps may be due to menstruation or gastroenteritis. Differential diagnosis Causes of cramping include[1] hyperflexion, hypoxia, exposure to large changes in temperature, dehydration, or low blood salt. Muscle cramps may also be a symptom or complication of pregnancy,kidney disease, thyroid disease, hypok alemia, hypomagnesemia or hypocalcemia (as conditions), restless-leg syndrome, varicose veins, [2] and multiple sclerosis.[3] Electrolyte disturbance may cause cramping and muscle tetany, particularly hypokalaemia and hypocalcaemia. This disturbance arises as the body loses large amounts of interstitial fluid throughsweat. This interstitial fluid comprises mostly water and table salt (sodium chloride). The loss of osmotically active particles outside of muscle cells leads to a disturbance of the osmotic balance and swelling of muscle cells, as these contain more osmotically active particles. This causes the calcium pump between the muscle lumen and sarcoplasmic reticulum to short circuit; the calcium ions remain bound to the troponin, continuing muscle contraction. This may occur when lactic acid is high in the cells As early as 1965, researchers observed that leg cramps and restless-leg syndrome result from excess insulin, sometimes called hyperinsulinemia. [4] Hypoglycemia and reactive hypoglycemia are associated with excess insulin (or insufficient glucagon), and avoidance of low blood glucose concentration may help to avoid cramps. Smooth muscle cramps Smooth muscle contractions lie at treatment may be symptomatic of endometriosis or other health problems. Menstrual cramps may also occur before a female menstrual cycle. Skeletal muscle cramps Skeletal muscles can be voluntarily controlled. Skeletal muscles that cramp the most often are the calves, thighs, and arches of the foot. A socalled Charley horse, this kind of cramp is associated with strenuous activity and can be intensely painfulthough skeletal cramps can occur while relaxing. Around 40% of people who

experience skeletal cramps are likely to endure extreme muscle pain, and may be unable to use the affected limb. It may take up to seven days for the muscle to return to a pain-free state. Nocturnal leg cramps Nocturnal leg cramps are involuntary muscle contractions that occur in the calves, soles of the feet, or other muscles in the body during the night or (less commonly) while resting. Only a few fibers of a muscle may be in spasm.[5] The duration of nocturnal leg cramps is variable with cramps lasting anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Muscle soreness may remain after the cramp itself ends. These cramps are erroneously believed more common in older people. They happen quite frequently in teenagers and in some people while exercising at night. Usually, putting some pressure on the affected leg by walking some distance will end the cramp.[6] Typically, nocturnal leg cramps will place the sufferer in a panic. The precise cause of these cramps is unclear. Potential contributing factors include dehydration, low levels of certain minerals (magnesium, potassium, calcium, and sodium), and reduced blood flow through muscles attendant in prolonged sitting or lying down. Less common causes include more serious conditions or drug use.
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Nocturnal leg cramps may sometimes be relieved by stretching the affected leg and pointing the toes upward. Quickly standing up and walking a few steps may also shorten the duration of a cramp.[6] Nocturnal leg cramps (almost exclusively calf cramps) are considered 'normal' during the late stages of pregnancy. They can, however, vary in intensity from mild to extremely painful. Iatrogenic causes Statins cause myalgia and cramps among other possible side effects, including substantially lowering blood glucose concentration.[7] Additional factors, which increase the probability for these side effects, are physical exercise, age, female gender, history of cramps, and hypothyroidism. Up to 80% of athletes using statins suffer significant adverse muscular effects, including cramps;[8] the rate appears to be approximately 1025% in a typical statin-using population.[9][10] In some cases, adverse effects disappear after switching to a different statin; however, they should not be ignored if they persist, as they can, in rare cases, develop into more serious problems. Coenzyme Q10 supplementation can be helpful to avoid some statin-related adverse effects, but currently there is not enough evidence to prove the effectiveness in avoiding myopathy or myalgia.[11]

Pathophysiology Main article: Muscle contraction Skeletal muscles work as antagonistic pairs. Contracting one skeletal muscle requires the relaxation of the opposing muscle in the pair. Cramps can occur when muscles are unable to relax properly due to myosin fibers not fully detaching from actin filaments. In skeletal muscle, both ATP (energy) and magnesium must attach to the myosin fibers for them to disassociate from the muscle and allow relaxation the absence of either of these in sufficient quantities means that the myosin remains attached to actin.[12] An attempt to force a muscle cramped in this way to extend (by contracting the opposing muscle) can tear muscle tissue and worsen the pain. The muscle must be allowed to recover (take in Mg and resynthesize ATP), before the myosin fibres can detach and allow the muscle to relax. Treatment Conservative Stretching and massage are widely considered to reduce muscle cramps due to fatigue,[13] but the quality of evidence for both is poor.[14] With exertional heat cramps due to electrolyte abnormalities(primarily sodium loss and not calcium, magnesium, and potassium ) appropriate fluids and sufficient salt improves symptoms.[13] Medication Vitamin B complex, naftidrofuryl, lidocaine, and calcium channel blockers may be effective for muscle cramps.[15] Quinine (or tonic water) is likely effective, however, due to side effects its use should only be considered if other treatments have failed and in light of these concerns.[15] The Three Different Types Of Muscle Fibers Are: 1. Type I fibers 2. Type IIa fibers 3. Type IIb fibers Each one has it's own characteristics and is suited to a particular type of movement. Another way to classify these fiber types is by their contractile and metabolic properties, thereby dividing them into slow and fast twitch fibers.

which aid in their oxidative metabolism (the use of oxygen). These types of fibers are fatigue resistant but are only able produce a relatively low level of force output. Physically, these fibers are red in appearance, due to their iron containing cytochromes, have a small fibers diameter and have many capillaries throughout their structure. For the average sedentary child or adult, slow twitch fibers comprise approximately 50% of their muscular tissues. Endurance athletes, such as marathon runners, cross-country skiers and distance cyclists often possess up to 90% slow twitch fibers. On the other hand, athletes that rely on short bursts of energy possess the lowest levels of slow twitch fibers, often around only 25%. Athletes with a higher proportion of slow twitch fibers also commonly have the highest VO2 max results, as this is a test primarily of aerobic capacity and these are the most important fiber types in relation to this measurement.

Type IIa: Fast Twitch Fibers.

The next category of muscle fibers is fast twitch fibers, divided into type IIa and type IIb. Fast twitch fibers are known for their ability to rapidly transmit action potentials and generate a high crossbridge turnover rate (responsible for quick muscle contractions). These fibers also possess a high activity level of myosin ATPase and show a rapid rate of calcium release and uptake by the sarcoplasmic reticulum (Katch et al, 2000). Due to these properties, these fibers generate an explosive burst of power for a short period of time. This makes them most suitable to stop and go activities such as basketball, soccer, and hockey, as well as max output activities such as weightlifting, and many track and field events. These fibers rely heavy on the glycolytic energy system (using the method of anaerobic glycolosis to produce ATP). Type IIa fibers are in the middle of the muscle fiber spectrum, as they are less fatigue resistance, produce more muscular force, and contract at a faster speed than slow twitch fibers.

Type I: Slow Twitch Fibers.

The first type of fiber we will look at is the type I, or slow twitch fibers. These fibers are slow to contract (hence, slow twitch), and can sustain muscular contractions for an extended period of time. This factor makes them ideal for endurance type of events where one is exercising for long durations. They also contain large and numerous mitochondria

Type IIb: Fast Twitch Fibers.

The type IIb fibers are the most fatigable out of all the fibers but also generate the most power and force, and therefore are the fastest twitch muscles fibers. These types of fibers are recruited in activities that require an all out burst of power and only act for an extremely short period of time, as the total length of their contractions usually last only 7.5 milliseconds. In terms of general recruitment, they are also the last to be recruited. For example, upon normal activities, slow twitch fibers are recruited first, followed by type IIa when the type I can no longer suffice, and then finally the type IIb, which are recruited to produce maximal strength.

better to training methods and will show faster improvement. Conclusion For recreational athletes though, commitment to practice and training will play a far more significant role in performance level than muscle fiber type alone will. So, the three types of muscle fibers are slow twitch (Type I) and fast twitch (Types IIa and IIb). Slow twitch are characterized by having long contraction rates, being resistant to fatigue, relying on oxygen as their main source of metabolism, and are used primarily in endurance type of activities that don't require a great deal of force. Fast twitch fibers on the other hand have short but powerful contraction rates, are highly fatigable due to their reliance on anaerobic metabolism that produces lactic acid, and are more suited to activities that are powerful and quick in duration.

What Is The Difference? In regards to physical appearance, type IIa are pink in color, have an intermediate diameter, capillary level and mitochondria volume. The type IIb fibers are white in color, have the largest diameter and have a low capillary and mitochondrial volume. Most strength athletes possess a higher % of fast twitch fibers, as do those in short duration, quick moving activities. The primary reason why fast twitch fibers are not resistant to fatigue is because they rely on anaerobic glycolysis to produce ATP. During this process lactic acid begins to accumulate and a condition called acidosis occurs which brings about muscular fatigue. Due to their low capillary level, they do not make use of oxygen nearly like slow twitch fibers do (which also explains their reliance on anaerobicmetabolism). Although each muscle fiber type has certain characteristics that make it more suited for certain activities, this does not mean that an athlete with a predominance of one type of muscle fiber can only participate in those activities that call for that type. With proper training, they still can learn many of the skills and techniques used in different sports and can achieve success across a wide variety of activities. It is common however, that athletes with a predominance in one type of fiber do naturally tend to be drawn to the types of activities more suited to their body as they tend to naturally be better at those actions and therefore often enjoy participating more. At the elite level of competition, you may find that those athletes who do possess the certain characteristics in their muscle fiber that are required by the sport do tend to be able to push the envelope slightly further, as their body may react