CHAPTER 1

DIGITAL CONTROL
Introduction: Historical Development
Introduction: Historical Development
Contd
Introduction (Contd)
Introduction (Contd)
Introduction (contd)
Introduction (Contd)
Introduction (Contd)
Introduction (Contd)
Practically all control systems that are implemented
today are based on computer control. A computer
controlled system can be described schematically as:
COMPUTER/ DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
A continuous time signal, y(t) is converted into digital
form by analog-to-digital converter (A-D) at sampling
times, t
k
.
The computer interprets the converted signal, {y(t
k
)} as
a sequence of numbers.
The computer processes the measurements using an
algorithm, resulting a new sequence of numbers, {u(t
k
)}.
This sequence is converted to analog signal by digital-
to-analog converter (D-A).

COMPUTER/ DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
Sampled/ discrete-time
signal
Sampled-data system
Computer-controlled system
Discrete-time system
COMPUTER/ DIGITAL CONTROL
SYSTEM
Continuous-time signal
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
1955: Pioneering period
1962: Direct- digital-control period
1967: Minicomputer period
The computer systems were slow, expensive and unreliable.
Control process by printing instructions to the process operator.
More flexible and cheaper for large installations .
Computer controlled the process directly by basic control functions.

Efficient design of process control system was possible as computer
became smaller, faster, more reliable and cheaper.
Only restricted to large industrial system.
Practically all controllers are computer-based
1972: Microcomputer period
1990: Distributed / Plantwide supervision
& control
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
1980: General use of digital control
PLC emerges as replacement for relays.
All computers and computer systems in industrial plants are
virtually integrated to achieve real-time exchange of data .
Plantwide & supervision control in the industry
By plantwide supervision & control there is data
communication between all the computers.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
Data communication is the transfer of digital data
between computer systems by means of electrical
or optical transmission systems (called networks).
Data communication system is set of devices
(hosts) connected by a communication medium
that are able to share data through transmission
over the media.
Three common types of network are:



a) LAN: Local Area Network
b) MAN: Metropolitan Area Network
c) WAN: Wide Area Network
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
LAN: Local Area Network
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
LAN: Local Area Network

Provides interconnection of a variety of data
communication devices (computers, printers,
appliances) within a small area (< 1 mile), in an office
building or home.
There are two main benefits to using a local area
network: information sharing and resource sharing.
Examples of Information sharing include file sharing,
exchanging e-mail and using the Internet.
Examples of resource sharing include sharing hardware
and software, such as sharing an expensive printer.

DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
MAN: Metropolitan Area Network
Similar characteristics to LANs but larger distances:
about 10s of miles
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
WAN: Wide Area Network
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
Networks that cover substantial distances and can even
be worldwide
Examples:
- Public telephone networks
- Public packet switched networks (e.g., the Internet)
DEVELOPMENT OF COMPUTER-
CONTROLLED SYSTEM
Future
There are 4 areas that are important for the development of
computer process control:
Process knowledge
Progress in system identification & data analysis; & installation
of process-control systems have provided valuable information
on process knowledge because it is easy to collect data,
perform experiment and analyse the result.
Measurement technology
Possibility of obtaining automatic calibration with a computer.
Computer technology
Microcomputers are expected to have greater computing power.
Substantial improvement are expected in display techniques
and communications.
Control theory
Studies indicate significant improvements can be made.
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Block diagram of an analog feedback control
system configuration.
The plant is the process to be controlled.
The feedback element/ sensor feeds the plant output
back to the input side of the system.
The controller is driven by the difference between the
input & feedback output.
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Block diagram of a digital feedback control system
configuration.
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
The main difference between the two
control systems is, digital control system
has analog to digital converter (ADC) and
digital to analog converter (DAC)

ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
Other differences:
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
ANALOG CONTROL SYSTEM VS.
DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM
A digital control system offers many advantages
over its analog counterparts.
Although it has several disadvantages, its
advantages outweigh its disadvantages.
Since digital control systems are widely used
today, it is important to understand the underlying
theories and concepts.
Multi axis motion controller board on which is
implemented a microcontroller used to control dc
brush, dc brushless, ac induction, stepper and
variable reluctance motor.
DESIGN PROCESS OF A DIGITAL
CONTROL SYSTEM
System specification specifies the
design parameter
Mathematical modeling of physical system
Analysis of the model of a system
Detailed design
Verification by simulation packages:
MATLAB, CAE,etc
Implementation & the implemented design
enters the world as new product
From the world the need/ desire to
design a control system arises
EXAMPLES OF DIGITAL
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Example 1.1 Digital Filter


A digital filter is a simple example of a computer/ digital
control system.
Example 1.1 Digital Filter


The block diagram of a digital filter
The response of the system on external
stimulus depends on how it is synchronized
with the internal clock of the computer system.
Sampled system is not time-invariant
The step responses of a digital computer
implementations for 4 different delays in the input step
(dashed) compared with the first sampling instant.
Example 1.1 Digital Filter


Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive


The purpose of the control system is to control the
position of the arm so that the head follows a given
track and rapidly moves to a different track. Benefits of
improved control: better trackkeeping allows narrower
tracks and higher packing density.
The block diagram of the system:
Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive


Let be the moment of inertia of the arm assembly.
The dynamics relating the position of the arm, y to
the voltage of the drive amplifier, u is approximately
described by
(1.1)
Where is a constant
Let u
c
be the command signal.
A simple servo controller can be described by

(1.2)
2
) (
Js
k
s G =
J
k
) ( ) ( ) ( s Y
a s
b s
K s U
a
bK
s U c
+
+
=
Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive


If the controller parameters are chosen as



A system with the characteristic polynomial

is obtained.
To obtain an algorithm for a computer-controlled
system, the control law given by (1.2) is first written as
k
J
k
b
a
2
0
0
0
2
2 /
2
e
e
e
=
=
=
3
0
2
0
2
0
3
2 2 ) ( e e e + + + = s s s s P
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+

+ = ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( s X s Y s U
a
b
K s Y
a s
b a
K s KY s U
a
bk
s U
c c
Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive


This control law can be written as


(1.3)

To obtain an algorithm for a control computer, the
derivative is approximated with a difference. This gives
( )
y b a ax
dt
dx
t x t y t u
a
b
K t u
c
) (
) ( ) ( ( ) (
+ =
+ =
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
t y b a t ax
h
t x h t x
+ =
+
Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive


The following approximation of the continuous
algorithm (1.3) is then obtained:
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
k k k k
k k k c k
t ax t y b a h t x h t x
t x t y t u
a
b
K t u
+ = +
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
The simulation of the disk arm servo with analog
(dashed) and computer/digital control (solid).
Example 1.2 Controlling the Arm of Disk Drive



Example 1.3 Simplified Single Axis Autopilot Control System
The figure shows the block diagram of a simplified
single axis analog control of an aircraft or missile. This
is a typical analog control system. The signal can all
be represented as functions of continuous time
variable, t. The objective of the control is that the
attitude of the airframe follow the command signal.
Instead of using analog controller, a digital controller with
ADC and DAC can be used for the same objective, as
shown in the figure . Since all components other than the
digital controller are still analog, ADC and DAC are
necessary for signal conversions.
Example 1.3 Simplified Single Axis Autopilot Control System
The figure shows the digital autopilot control system
in which the position and rate information are
obtained by digital transducers, and the operations
are represented by sample and hold devices.
Example 1.3 Simplified Single Axis Autopilot Control System
Example 1.3 Simplified Single Axis Autopilot Control System
The sampler samples the analog signal at some
uniform sampling rate, and the hold device holds the
value of the pulse signal until the next sample
comes along. This system is called multirate
sampled-data system since the two samplers have
different sampling periods T
1
and T
2
.
The figure shows the basic element of a rolling mills
regulating system in industrial process. It can be seen
that the computer controls the drive speed, tension and
thickness.
Example 1.4 Digital Computer-Controlled Rolling Mill
Regulating System
Example 1.4 Digital Computer-Controlled Rolling Mill
Regulating System
Figure 1. shows a block diagram of the thickness
control portion of the system.
Figure 1. Thickness control in a rolling mill regulating system
The figure shows the block diagram and the essential
elements of a minicomputer system used for speed and
voltage control, and data acquisition of a turbine-generator
unit. The DAC forms interface between the digital computer
and the speed and voltage controls. The data-acquisition
system measures variables such as the generator speed, rotor
angle, terminal voltage, field and armature current, and real
and reactive power.
Example 1.5 Digital Controller for a Turbine and Generator
The figure shows an all-digital data system. It contains
all digital elements so that ADC and DAC for signal
matching are unnecessary. It is used to control the read-
write head of a computer memory disk. The prime mover
used in this system is a step motor driven by pulse
commands. The step motor moves one fixed
displacement increment in response to each pulse input.
Example 1.6 Step Motor Control System
Example 1.7 Motor Position Control System
The digital controller of the motor position control
system is a microcontroller.
The figure shows the block diagram of a dc motor
control system that uses special purpose
microprocessor; GALIL GL-1200 that provides closed
loop position and velocity control of a dc motor. GALIL
GL-1200 is designed with proportional and derivative
(PD) control.
Example 1.8 Microprocessor-Controlled Systems
Example 1.8 Microprocessor-Controlled Systems
The figure illustrates the same dc motor control
system but uses National Semiconductor LM 628
controller, designed with PID controls.
The microprocessors in this example can be
replaced by a DSP, which may result in greater
improvement in the system performance.
Example 1.8 Microprocessor-Controlled Systems
Example 1.9 Active Vehicle Suspension System
DSPs can be used to control vehicle suspension systems.
Social and economic systems can also be modeled by
a discrete-data system model.
Assume that:

Example 1.10 Discrete-Data Model of an Interest-
Payment Problem
p(0) : amount of capital borrowed initially
R : percent of unpaid balance per period
U : principal & interest to be paid in N equal payments
p(k) : the amount owned after the kth period.
Then, the difference equation can be written for the problem:
p(k+1) = (1+R) p(k) - U
The block diagram of the discrete-data system model is
described as
Example 1.10 Discrete-Data Model of an Interest-
Payment Problem
Where:
p(k+1) : amount still owed at the end of the (k+1)th
period

The given p(0) and p(N)=0 are the boundary conditions

An antenna pointing system is illustrated in Figure
1.1. The yaw angle, (t), is controlled by the electric
motor and the gear system.The voltage v
0
(t) is directly
proportional to the yaw angle (t) of the antenna, and
the voltage v
i
(t) is directly proportional to the desired
yaw angle. If the yaw angle and the desired yaw
angle are different, the error voltage e(t) is nonzero.
This voltage is amplified and applied to the motor to
cause rotation of the motor shaft in the direction that
reduces the error voltage. The block diagram of this
analog control system is described in Figure 1.2.
Assignment 1
Assignment 1
Figure 1.1 Antenna pointing system
Assignment 1
Figure 1.2 Block diagram of antenna pointing system
1. Simulate the analog control system of the antenna
pointing system by using MATLAB, providing the
response behaviour of the system to a unit-step
input.
2. Convert the analog control system block diagram
to its corresponding digital control system block
diagram, highlighting all the elements of the digital
control system.
3. Explain (and provide the necessary diagram), how
this system can be implemented by using digital
signal processor (DSP) based on Example 1.9.
Assignment 1
General Conversion System Organisation for Control
Integrated ADC and DAC in DCS
Computer Interface System
Measurement in Digital Control systems
Real-Time Computer Control
Real-Time Computer Control
Real-time implies the ability of the computer to respond to stimuli from the
system in a timely fashion, that is, it must respond sufficiently fast in order to
accommodate the needs of the process. For example, the computer must
be capable of reacting to any emergency conditions in the plant.
The challenge of real-time responses becomes more critical for processes
operating on short time scales, hence careful attention must be given to the
selection of computer, its structure and the designing of the overall system.
Several trends are emerging:
Rapid development of inexpensive, fast computer hardware
Introduction of standard high-level languages (with necessary extensions of
real-time applications)
Wider availability of sophisticated executive systems for monitoring computer
operations
All of the above are reducing the requirement of specialized knowledge.
Example 1
Direct Digital Control Systems
DDC control consists of microprocessor-based controllers with the
control logic performed by software. Analog-to-Digital (A/D)
converters transform analog values into digital signals that a
microprocessor can use. Analog sensors can be resistance, voltage
or current generators. Most systems distribute the software to
remote controllers to eliminate the need for continuous
communication capability (stand-alone). The computer is primarily
used to monitor the status of system, store back-up copies of the
programs and record alarming and trending functions. The central
diagnostic capabilities are a significant asset. Software and
programming are constantly improving, becoming increasingly user-
friendly with each update.
Benefits of DDC
The benefits of direct digital control over past control technologies
(pneumatic or distributed electronic) is that it improves the control
effectiveness and increases the control efficiency. The three main
direct benefits of DDC are improved effectiveness, improved
operation efficiency and increased energy efficiency.