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PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
Created By: Nurina Ayuningtyas (093174003) Riska Visitasari (093174025) Dwitya Budi Anggraeny (093174046)

1. 2. 3.

Mathematics and Science Faculty Mathematics Department 2012

HISTORY OF PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

The earliest art paintings and drawings typically sized objects and characters hierarchically according to their spiritual or thematic importance, not their distance from the viewer, and did not use foreshortening

The first geometrical properties of a projective nature were discovered in the third century by Pappus of Alexandria who have

stated If A, B, C are three points on one line, D, E, F on another,

and if the three lines AE, BF, AF meet BD, CE, CD respectively at points L, M, N, then L, M, N are collinear.
A
B C

11th century illustration from the Old French translation of William of Tyre's Histoire d'Outremer. There is clearly a general attempt to reduce the size of more distant elements, but unsystematically.

In about 1415, Filippo Brunelleschi, demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror. He had the viewer look through a small hole on the back of the painting, facing the Baptistery. He would then set up a mirror, facing the viewer, which reflected his painting. To the viewer, the painting of the Baptistery and the Baptistery itself were nearly indistinguishable.

Brunelleschis Peep Show In 1415, Brunelleschi painted his picture of the Baptistery on the surface of a small mirror, right on top of its own reflection. To demonstrate the fact that his painting was indeed an exact replica that could fool

the eye, Brunelleschi drilled a small hole in

the mirror and then stood directly in front of the Baptistery, looking through the peephole to see the real building.

He then held up a second, clean mirror in front of his painted

panel. The second mirror blocked

the view of the real building, but now reflected his painted version on the original mirror. By holding up the panel and

pressing the hole to one eye while holding a mirror with the other hand,

the viewer could see the paintings

reflection. A viewer standing in the cathedral doorway could check the painted illusion against the real view.

Brunelleschi's most important achievement in mathematics came around 1415

when he rediscovered the principles of linear perspective using mirrors. He

understood that there should be a single vanishing point to which all parallel lines in a plane, other than the plane of the canvas, converge. Also important was his understanding of scale, and he correctly computed the relation between the actual length of an object and its length in the picture depending on its distance behind the plane of the canvas.

Soon after, nearly every artist in Florence and in Italy used geometrical
perspective in their paintings, notably Masolino da Panicale and Donatello

The checkerboard floors obeyed the primary laws of geometrical perspective: the lines converged approximately to a vanishing point, and the rate at which the horizontal lines receded into the distance was graphically determined

Not only was perspective a way of showing depth, it was also a new method of composing a painting. Paintings began to show a single, unified scene, rather than a combination of several.

Decades later, his friend Leon Battista Alberti wrote De pictura (On
painting), (1435/1436), a treatise on proper methods of showing distance in painting.These ideas on perspective become the main focus of Renaissance painting and eventually will lead to a new branch of mathematics, projective geometry. Leon Battista Alberti imagined the picture surface as an open window through which a painted world is seen. It showed how a

perspective checkerboard pavement is created within the picture

space in which the receding parallel lines represent the visual rays connecting the spectators eye to a spot in the distance.

The system of Albertis perspective are:

The system of Albertis perspective are:

a) based his system on the height of the human figure, being 3 braccia tall b) drew a rectangular picture area, imagined as an open window c) divided the ground line into scaled braccia d) fixed the central vanishing point by drawing a vertical line three braccia high e) from the center of the ground line f) drew diagonals-orthogonals (visual imaginary rays" helping the viewer's eye to connect points around the canvas to the vanishing point.)-joining the ground line to the vanishing point

Beauty was for Alberti the harmony of all parts in relation to one another, and subsequently this concord is realized in a particular number, proportion, and arrangement demanded by harmony. Albertis thoughts on harmony were not new they could be traced back to

Pythagoras, but he set them in a fresh context, which well fit in with the
contemporary Aesthetic Discourse.

The culmination of these Renaissance traditions finds its ultimate synthesis in the research of the architect, geometer, and optician

Girard Desargues on perspective, optics and projective

geometry.In 1636, Desargues derived his famous perspective theorem, which states, When two triangles are in perspective, the points where the corresponding sides meet are collinear.

PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY
In Euclidean geometry, constructions are made with Ruler (Line) and Compass (Circle). Projective Geometry only requires a Ruler It is not possible to talk about angles in projective geometry as it is in Euclidean geometry, because angle is an example of a concept not invariant

under projective transformations, as is seen clearly in perspective drawing.

Another difference from elementary geometry is the way in which parallel lines can be said to meet in a point at infinity, once the concept is translated into projective geometry's terms. Again this notion has an intuitive basis, such as railway tracks meeting at the horizon in a perspective drawing.

Basic Definitions of Projective Geometry

A set of points is collinear if every point in the set is incident with the same line.

Points incident with the same line are said to be collinear.

Lines incident with the same point are said to be concurrent. A complete quadrangle is a set of four points, no three of which are collinear, and the six lines incident with each pair of these points. The four points are called vertices and the six lines are called sides of the quadrangle. Two sides of a complete quadrangle are opposite if the point incident to both lines is not a vertex.

A diagonal point of a complete quadrangle is a point incident with opposite sides of

the quadrangle.

A complete quadrilateral is a set of four lines, no three of which are concurrent, and the six points incident with each pair of these lines. The four lines are called sides and the six points are called vertices of the quadrilateral. Two vertices of a complete

quadrilateral are opposite if the line incident to both points is not a side. A diagonal
line of a complete quadrilateral is a line incident with opposite vertices of the quadrilateral. A triangle is a set of three noncollinear points and the three lines incident with each pair of these points. The points are called vertices, and the lines are called sides. Two figures are perspective from a point provided the lines determined from corresponding points are concurrent. The point is called the center.

Two figures are perspective from a line provided the points of intersection of
corresponding sides are collinear. The line is called the axis. A set of points incident with a line is called a pencil of points (or range of points), and the line is called the axis. A set of lines incident with a point is called a pencil of lines, and the point is called the center.

 A one-to-one mapping between two pencils of points is called a perspectivity if the lines incident with the corresponding points of the two pencils are concurrent. The point where the lines intersect is called the center of the perspectivity. O is the center of perspectivity. A one-to-one mapping between two pencils of points is called a projectivity if the

mapping is a composition of finitely many perspectivities.

Axioms in Projective Geometry

Axiom 1. Axiom 2.

Any two distinct points are incident with exactly one line. Any two distinct lines are incident with at least one point.

Axiom 3.
Axiom 4.

There exist at least four points, no three of which are collinear.

The three diagonal points of a complete quadrangle are never collinear.

Axiom 5.

(Desargues' Theorem) If two triangles are perspective from a point, then they are perspective from a line.

Axiom 6.

If a projectivity on a pencil of points leaves three distinct points of the pencil invariant, it leaves every point of the pencil invariant.

Basic Theorems in Projective Geometry

Theorem 1 (Dual of Axiom 1) Any two distinct lines are incident with exactly one point.

Theorem 2 There exist a point and a line that are not incident.

Theorem 3 Every line is incident with at least three distinct points.

Theorem 4

Every line is incident with at least four distinct points.

DUALITY
Duality is the quality of being two fold, which in mathematics means given one conclusion we can easily reach another conclusion which is equally important. In a geometry aspect, we say that two theorems are dual to each other if we can take one theorem and replace terms such as :

point for line,

Lie on for passing through Collinear for concurrent Intersection for join, vise versa, and receive a second theorem that is equally important. The dual of a theorem is one example of duality in mathematics.

Dual of Axiom 1

Any two distinct lines are incident with exactly one point.

Dual of Axiom 2 Any two distinct points are incident with at least one line.

Dual of Axiom 3 There exist at least four lines, no three of which are concurrent.

Dual of Axiom 4 The three diagonal lines of a complete quadrilateral are never concurrent.

Prof:

Dual of Axiom 5 (Dual of Desargues' Theorem)

If two triangles are perspective from a line, then they are perspective from a
point.

Dual of Axiom 6 If a projectivity on a pencil of lines leaves three distinct lines of the pencil invariant, it leaves every line of the pencil invariant.

Desargues Projective Geometry

Desarguess Theorem states that; If two triangles are perspective

from a point they are perspective from a line. The Dual of Desarguess Theorem states; If two triangles are perspective from a line they are perspective from a point.

Pascals Theorem and Brianchons Theorem

Pascals Theorem
If all 6 vertices of a hexagon lie on a circle and the 3 pairs of opposite sides intersect, then the three points of intersection are collinear. Brianchons Theorem If all 6 sides of a hexagon touch a circle, then the three diagonals are concurrent (or possibly parallel).

Pascals Theorem

Brianchons Theorem

APPLICATION OF PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY

The Pinhole Camera A pinhole camera provides another very nice illustration of perspective. A pinhole camera is just a light-tight box with film attached to one inside face and with a pinhole on the opposite face that is covered until you want to take a photo. To take a photo, point the pinhole in the correct direction, uncover it until the film is properly exposed, cover it again, and then remove and develop the film in a darkroom.

Plane Euclidean and Projective Geometries

Undefined Terms: point, line, and the relation incidence

Axioms of Incidence
Euclidean 1. There exist at least three points not incident with the same line 2. Every line is incident with at least two distinct points. 3. Every point is incident with at least two distinct lines.

Projective
1. There exist a point and a line that are not incident. 2. Every line is incident with at least three distinct points. 3. Every point is incident with at least three distinct lines. 4. Any two distinct points are incident with one and only one line. 5. Any two distinct lines are incident with one and only one point.

4. Any two distinct points are incident with one and only one line.
5. Any two distinct lines are incident with at most one point.

Note: The main differences between these is that the projective axioms do not allow for the possibility that two lines dont intersect, and the complete duality between point and line.

REFERENCES Grave, Johannes. 2010. Brunelleschis Perspective Panels. Rupture and Continuity in The History of The Image. The Netherlands. Website: http://www.answers.com/topic/1436

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)
http://id.scribd.com/doc/88654339/GEOMETRI-PROYEKTIF-revisi http://web.mnstate.edu/peil/geometry/c4projectivegeometry/3Axioms.htm