Dynamic Characteristics

Dynamic characteristics tell us about how well a sensor

responds to changes in its input. For dynamic signals, the sensor or
the measurement system must be able to respond fast enough to keep
up with the input signals.
Sensor
or
system
Input signal
x(t)
Output signal
y(t)
In many situations, we must use y(t) to infer x(t), therefore a
qualitative understanding of the operation that the sensor or
measurement system performs is imperative to understanding the
input signal correctly.
General Model For A Measurement System
n
th
Order ordinary linear differential equation with constant coefficient
Where m n
y(t) = output from the system
x(t)

= input to the system
t

= time
as and bs = system physical parameters, assumed constant
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
0 1
1
1
1 0 1
1
1
1
t r b
dt
t dr
b
dt
t r d
b
dt
t r d
b t c a
dt
t dc
a
dt
t c d
a
dt
t c d
a
m
m
m
m
m
m
n
n
n
n
n
n
+ + + + = + + + +

Measurement
system
x(t) y(t)
y(0)
F(t) = forcing function
The solution
Where y
ocf
= complementary-function part of solution
y
opi
= particular-integral part of solution
opi ocf
y y t y + = ) (
Complementary-Function Solution
The solution y
ocf
is obtained by calculating the n roots of the algebraic characteristic
equation
1
1 1 0
... 0
n n
n n
a D a D a D a

+ + + + =
Characteristic equation
Roots of the characteristic equation:
1 2
, ,...,
n
D s s s =
1. Real roots, unrepeated:
2. Real roots, repeated:
each root s which appear p times
3. Complex roots, unrepeated:
the complex form: a ib
4. Complex roots, repeated:
each pair of complex root which appear p times
st
Ce
( )
2 1
0 1 2 1
...
p st
p
C Ct C t C t e

+ + + +
sin( )
at
Ce bt | +
2
0 0 1 1 2 2
1
1 1
[ sin( ) sin( ) sin( )
... sin( )]
p at
p p
C bt Ct bt C t bt
C t bt e
| | |
|

+ + + + +
+ + +
Complementary-function solution:
Particular Solution
Method of undetermined coefficients:
After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives are zero.
After a certain-order derivative, all higher derivatives have the same
functional form as some lower-order derivatives.
Upon repeated differentiation, new functional forms continue to arise.
Where f(t) = the function that describes input quantity
A, B, C = constant which can be found by substituting y
opi
into ODEs
Important Notes
... ) ( ) ( ) ( + ' ' + ' + = t f C t f B t Af y
opi



Zero-order Systems
The behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity, K and remains
constant regardless of input frequency (ideal dynamic characteristic).
A linear potentiometer used as position
sensor is a zero-order sensor.
V
r
x
m
x = 0
y = V
-
+
here, /
r r m
m
x
V V K V x
x
= =
Where 0 s x s x
m
and V
r
is a reference voltage
All the as and bs other than a
0
and b
0
are zero.
where K = static sensitivity = b
0
/a
0
) ( ) (
0 0
t x b t y a =
) ( ) ( t Kx t y =
Where K = b
0
/a
0
is the static sensitivity
t = a
1
/a
0
is the systems time constant (dimension of time)
All the as and bs other than a
1
, a
0
and b
0
are zero.
First-Order Systems
) (
) (
0 0 1
t x b a
dt
t dy
a = +
) ( ) (
) (
t Kx t y
dt
t dy
= + t
1
) (
+
=
D
K
D
x
y
t
Time, t
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
U
(
t
)
0
1
2
First-Order Systems: Step Response
The complete solution:
Assume for t < 0, y = y
0
, at time = 0 the input quantity, x increases instantly
by an amount A. Therefore t > 0
y
ocf
y
opi
Applying the initial condition, we get C = y
0
-KA, thus
gives

t /
0
) ( ) (
t
e KA y KA t y

+ =

>
s
= =
0
0 0
) ( ) (
t A
t
t AU t x
) ( ) (
) (
t KAU t y
dt
t dy
= + t
Transient
response

Steady state
response

KA Ce t y
t
+ =
t /
) (
First-Order Systems: Step Response
t/t
0 1 2 3 4 5
O
u
t
p
u
t

S
i
g
n
a
l
,

(
y
(
t
)
-
y
0
)
/
(
K
A
-
y
0
)
0.0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
0.632
t/t
0 1 2 3 4 5
E
r
r
o
r

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

e
m
0.0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
0.368
t /
) 0 (
) (
t
e
KA y
KA t y

=

Non-dimensional step response of first-order instrument

t /
0
0
1
) (
t
e
y KA
y t y

=

Here, we define the term error fraction as

t /
0
) ( ) 0 (
) ( ) ( ) (
) (
t
m
e
y y
y t y
KA y
KA t y
t e

=


=

=
Determination of Time constant
t
0 1 2 3 4 5
E
r
r
o
r

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n
,

e
m
.001
.01
.1
1
t /
) 0 (
) (
t
e
KA y
KA t y

=

0.368
t
t
e e
m m
= = log 3 . 2 ln
Slope = -1/t
t /
) 0 (
) (
t
m
e
KA y
KA t y
e

=

=
First-Order Systems: Ramp Response
The complete solution:
Applying the initial condition, gives

>
s
=
0
0 0
) (
t t q
t
t x
is

Therefore
) ( ) (
/
t t
t
+ =

t e q K t y
t
is

Measurement error

Transient
error

Steady
state error

Assume that at initial condition, both y and x = 0, at time = 0, the input quantity
start to change at a constant rate Thus, we have is
q
) ( ) (
) (
t tU q K t y
dt
t dy
is
= + t
) ( ) (
/
t
t
+ =

t q K Ce t y
is
t

Transient
response

Steady state
response

t t
t
is
t
is m
q e q
K
t y
t x e + = =
/
) (
) (
First-Order Instrument: Ramp Response
t/t
0 2 4 6 8 10
O
u
t
p
u
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
,

y
/
K
0
2
4
6
8
10
Non-dimensional ramp response of first-order instrument
Steady state
error =
t
is
q
t
Steady state
time lag =
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
From the response of first-order system to sinusoidal inputs,
we have
t KA y
dt
dy
e t sin = +
t A t x e sin ) ( =
( ) t KA t y D e t sin ) ( 1 = +
The complete solution:
( ) et e
et
t 1
2
/
tan sin
) ( 1
) (

+
+ = t
KA
Ce t y
t
Transient
response

Steady state
response

If we do interest in only steady state response of the system, we can write the
equation in general form
| | ) ( sin ) ( ) (
/
e | e e
t
+ + =

t B Ce t y
t
| |
2 / 1
2
) ( 1
) (
et
e
+
=
KA
B
et e |
1
tan ) (

=
Where B(e) = amplitude of the steady state response and |(e) = phase shift
Frequency
response

=
et
.01 .1 1 10 100
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

r
a
t
i
o
0.0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
D
e
c
i
b
e
l
s

(
d
B
)
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-20
et
.01 .1 1 10 100
P
h
a
s
e

s
h
i
f
t
,

|
(
e
)
-90
-80
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
First-Order Instrument: Frequency Response
The phase angle is The amplitude ratio
1 ) (
1
) (
2
+
=
et
e M
) ( tan ) (
1
et e |

=
( ) | |
2 / 1
2
1
1
) (
et
e
+
= =
KA
B
M
Frequency response of the first order system
0.707
-3 dB
Cutoff frequency
Dynamic error, o(e) = M(e): a measure of an inability of a system to
adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Dynamic error
Dynamic Characteristics
Cutoff frequency: the frequency at which the system response has fallen to
0.707 (-3 dB) of the stable low frequency.
c
r
f
t
35 . 0
~
Dynamic error, o(e) = 1- M(e) a measure of the inability of a system or sensor to
adequately reconstruct the amplitude of the input for a particular frequency
Bandwidth the frequency band over which M(e) > 0.707 (-3 dB in decibel unit)
Frequency Response describe how the ratio of output and input changes
with the input frequency. (sinusoidal input)
First-Order Systems: Frequency Response
Ex: Inadequate frequency response
Suppose we want to measure
With a first-order instrument whose t is 0.2 s and
static sensitivity K
Superposition concept:
For e = 2 rad/s:
For e = 20 rad/s:
Therefore, we can write y(t) as
t t t x 20 sin 3 . 0 2 sin ) ( + =
o o
8 . 21 93 . 0 8 . 21
1 16 . 0
) rad/s 2 ( Z = Z
+
= K
K
B
o o
76 24 . 0 76
1 16
) rad/s 20 ( Z = Z
+
= K
K
B
) 76 20 sin( ) 24 . 0 )( 3 . 0 ( ) 8 . 21 2 sin( ) 93 . 0 )( 1 ( ) (
o o
+ = t K t K t y
) 76 20 sin( 072 . 0 ) 8 . 21 2 sin( 93 . 0 ) (
o o
+ = t K t K t y
x(t)
y(t)/K
Dynamic Characteristics
Example: A first order instrument is to measure signals with frequency content up to 100 Hz with
an inaccuracy of 5%. What is the maximum allowable time constant? What will be the phase shift
at 50 and 100 Hz?
Solution:
1
) (
) (
) (
2 2
+
= =
t e
e
e
e K
M
i Q
i Q
i
o
Define
% 100 1
1
1
% 100
) 0 (
) 0 ( ) (
error Dynamic
2 2

|
|
.
|

\
|

+
=

=
t e
e
M
M M
From the condition |Dynamic error| < 5%, it implies that
05 . 1
1
1
95 . 0
2 2
s
+
s
t e
But for the first order system, the term can not be greater than 1 so that the
constrain becomes
1 / 1
2 2
+ t e
Solve this inequality give the range
33 . 0 0 s set
The largest allowable time constant for the input frequency 100 Hz is
The phase shift at 50 and 100 Hz can be found from
et | arctan =
This give | = -9.33
o
and = -18.19
o
at 50 and 100 Hz respectively
1
1
1
95 . 0
2 2
s
+
s
t e
ms 52 . 0
Hz 100 2
33 . 0
= =
t
t
The essential parameters

= the static sensitivity

= the damping ratio, dimensionless

= the natural angular frequency
0
0
b
K
a
=
0
2
n
a
a
e =
1
0 2
2
a
a a
, =
Second-Order Systems
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
0 0 1
2
2
2
t x b t y a
dt
t dy
a
dt
t y d
a = + +
) ( ) ( 1
2
2
2
t Kx t y D
D
n n
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
e
,
e
In general, a second-order measurement system subjected to arbitrary input, x(t)
) ( ) (
) ( 2 ) ( 1
2
2
2
t Kx t y
dt
t dy
dt
t y d
n n
= + +
e
,
e
Consider the characteristic equation
Second-Order Systems
0 1
2 1
2
2
= + + D D
n n
e
,
e
This quadratic equation has two roots:
1
2
2 , 1
= , e ,e
n n
S
Overdamped (, > 1):
Critically damped (, = 1):
Underdamped (,< 1): :
Depending on the value of ,, three forms of complementary solutions are possible
( ) u + =

t Ce t y
n
t
oc
n
2
1 sin ) ( , e
,e
t t
oc
n n
e C e C t y
e , , e , , |
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
+ =
1
2
1
1
2 2
) (
t t
oc
n n
te C e C t y
e e
+ =
2 1
) (
t
y t
t
Ae
o
) sin( | e + t
d
Second-Order Systems
Case 2 Overdamped (, > 1):
Case 3 Critically damped (, = 1):
Case I Underdamped (,< 1):
d
n n
j
S
e o
, e ,e
=
=

1
2
2 , 1
( )
n
S e , , 1
2
2 , 1
=
n
S e =
2 , 1
t
y t
1 = ,
1 > ,
Second-order Systems
Example: The force-measuring spring
2
2
o o
i s o
dx d x
f B K x M
dt dt
=
forces=(mass)(acceleration) E
the second-order model:
consider a spring with spring constant K
s
under applied force f
i
and the total mass M. At start, the scale is adjusted so that x
o
= 0
when f
i
= 0;
2
( )
s o i
MD BD K x f + + =
1
m/N
s
K
K
=
rad/s
s
n
K
M
e =

2
s
B
K M
, =
Second-order Systems: Step Response
For a step input x(t)
With the initial conditions: y = 0 at t = 0+, dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+
The complete solution:

Overdamped (, > 1):
Critically damped (, = 1):
Underdamped (,< 1): :
) (
2 1
2
2
2
t KAU y
dt
dy
dt
y d
n n
= + +
e
,
e
1
1 2
1
1 2
1 ) (
1
2
2
1
2
2
2 2
+

+
=
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ t t
n n
e e
KA
t y
e , , e , ,
,
, ,
,
, ,
) ( ) ( 1
2
2
2
t KAU t y D
D
n n
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ +
e
,
e
1 ) 1 (
) (
+ + =
t
n
n
e t
KA
t y
e
e
( ) 1 1 sin
1
) (
2
2
+ +

=

| e ,
,
,e
t
e
KA
t y
n
t
n
( )
2 1
1 sin , | =

e
n
t
0 2 4 6 8 10
O
u
t
p
u
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
,

y
(
t
)
/
K
A
0.0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
Non-dimensional step response of second-order instrument
, = 0
0.25
0.5
1.0
2.0
2
1 , e e =
n d
Ringing frequency:
Rise time decreases , with but
increases ringing
Optimum settling time can be obtained
from , ~ 0.7
Practical systems use 0.6< , <0.8
d
d
T
e
t 2
=
Ringing frequency:
Dynamic Characteristics
Time, t (s)
0 5 10 15 20
O
u
t
p
u
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
,

y
(
t
)
/
K
A
0.0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
settling
time

rise time

overshoot

100% 5%
Typical response of the 2
nd
order system
Second-order System: Ramp Response
For a ramp input
With the initial conditions: y = dy/dt = 0 at t = 0+
The possible solutions:

2
1 (1 )
2
n
t
o is n
is
n
q q t
q t e
K
e
e
e

(
= +
(

Overdamped:
Critically damped:
Underdamped:
) (
2 1
2
2
2
t tU q K y
dt
dy
dt
y d
is
n n
= + +
e
,
e
) ( ) ( t tU q t x
is
=
|
|
.
|

+
+

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+
|
.
|

\
|

t
t
n
is
is
n
n
e
e
q
t q
K
t y
e , ,
e , ,
, ,
, , ,
, ,
, , ,
e
,
1
2
2 2
1
2
2 2
2
2
1 4
1 2 1 2

1 4
1 2 1 2
1
2 ) (

+ =
t
n
n
is
is
n
e
t q
t q
K
t y
e
e
e
)
1
1 ( 1
2 ) (

( )
(
(

=

| e ,
, ,
e
,
,e
t
e q
t q
K
t y
n
t
n
is
is
n
2
2
1 sin
1 2
1
2 ) (

1 2
1 2
tan
2
2
1

=

,
, ,
|
Time, t (s)
0 2 4 6 8 10
O
u
t
p
u
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
,

y
(
t
)
/
K

0
2
4
6
8
10
Second-order Instrument: Step Response
Typical ramp response of second-order instrument
, = 0.3
0.6
1.0
2.0
Ramp input
Steady state error =
n
is
q
e
, 2
t
Steady state
time lag =
n
e
, 2
where
Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response
The response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input of the form x(t) = Asinet

( ) | | ( ) { }
| | ) ( sin
/ 2 / 1
) ( ) (
2 / 1
2
2
2
e | e
e ,e e e
+
+
+ = t
KA
t y t y
n n
oc
| | ) ( sin ) ( ) (
steady
e | e e + = t B t y
The steady state response of a second-order to a sinusoidal input

( ) | | ( ) { }
2 / 1
2
2
2
/ 2 / 1
) (
n n
KA
B
e ,e e e
e
+
=
e e e e
,
e |
/ /
2
tan ) (
1
n n

=

e e e e
,
e |
/ /
2
tan ) (
1
n n

=

Where B(e) = amplitude of the steady state response and |(e) = phase shift
( ) | | ( ) { }
2 / 1
2
2
2
/ 2 / 1
1
) (
n n
KA
B
M
e ,e e e
e
+
= =
Second-order Instrument: Frequency Response
Magnitude and Phase plot of second-order Instrument

e/e
n
.01 .1 1 10 100
A
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e

r
a
t
i
o
0.0
.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
D
e
c
i
b
e
l

(
d
B
)
6
3
0
-3
-6
-10
-15
, = 0.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
e/e
n
.01 .1 1 10 100
P
h
a
s
e

s
h
i
f
t
,

|
(
e
)
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
,0 = 0.1
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.0
The phase angle
The amplitude ratio
( ) | | ( ) { }
2 / 1
2
2
2
/ 2 / 1
1
) (
n n
M
e ,e e e
e
+
=
e e e e
,
e |
/ /
2
tan ) (
1
n n

=

Time, t (s)
0 5 10 15 20
O
u
t
p
u
t

s
i
g
n
a
l
,

q
o
(
t
)
/
K
q
i
s
0.0
.2
.4
.6
.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
For overdamped (, >1) or critical damped (, = 1), there is neither overshoot nor steady-
state dynamic error in the response.
In an underdameped system (, < 1) the steady-state dynamic error is zero, but the speed
and overshoot in the transient are related.
arctan( / )
d
r
d
t
e o
e

=
p
d
t
t
e
=
( )
2
exp / 1
p
M t, , =
Rise time:
Peak time:
Maximum
overshoot:
2
1
2 1
r
M
, ,
=

Resonance
amplitude:
2 2
where = , 1 , and arcsin( 1 )
n d n
o ,e e e , | , = =
Resonance
frequency:
2
1 2
r n
e e , =
Second-order Systems
T
d
settling
time

rise time

overshoot

peak
time

Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response: indicates how fast the sensor (measurement system) reacts
to changes in the input variable. (Step input)

Rise time: the length of time it takes the output to reach 10 to 90% of full response
when a step is applied to the input

Time constant: (1
st
order system) the time for the output to change by 63.2% of its
maximum possible change.

Settling time: the time it takes from the application of the input step until the output
has settled within a specific band of the final value.

Dead time: the length of time from the application of a step change at the input of
the sensor until the output begins to change