COMP313A Programming Languages

Logic Programming (2)

Lecture Outline
Horn Clauses Resolution Some Prolog

A little bit of Prolog

Objects and relations between objects Facts and rules parent(pam, bob). parent(tom, liz). parent(bob, pat). ? parent(bob, pat). ? parent(bob, liz). ? parent(bob, ben). ? parent(bob, X). ? parent(X, Y).
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parent(tom,bob). parent(bob, ann). parent(pat, jim).

Prolog
grandparent (X,Y) :- parent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y).

For all X and Y X is the grandparent of Y if X is a parent of Z and Z is a parent of Y

sister (X,Y) :- parent(Z, X), parent(Z, Y), female(X) For all X and Y X is the sister of Y if Z is the parent of both X and Y and X is a female
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Horn Clauses
A clause is either a single predicate called a fact or a rule of the form
condition conclusion

Conclusion is a single predicate

Condition is a conjunction of predicates
a1 a2 a3 an
parent(X,Z) parent(Z,Y) grandparent(X,Y)
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Horn Clauses
Horn clauses dont have any quantifiers
Assumes that the variables in the head are universally quantified and the variables in the body are existentially quantified (if they dont appear in the head)

Horn Clauses
grandparent(X,Y) parent(X,Z) parent(Z,Y)
grandparent(X,Y) :-parent(X,Z),parent(Z,Y) Equivalent to
"x : "y : $z parent(X,Z) parent(Z,Y) grandparent(X,Y)

Horn clauses continued

A fact mammal(human) A query or goal mammal(human)

Horn clause example

" x mammal(x) legs(x,2) legs(x,4)
mammal(x) legs(x,2) legs(x,4) mammal(x) legs(x, 4) legs(x, 2) Prolog legs(x,4) :- mammal(x), not legs(x,2) legs(x,2) :- mammal(x), not legs(x,4)

legs(x,4) mammal(x) legs(x,2).

legs(x,2) mammal(x) legs(x,4). mammal(human). mammal(horse).
legs(horse, 2).

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Resolution
Inference rule for Horn clauses Combine left and right hand sides of two horn clauses Cancel those statements which match on both sides

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Resolution example
Example 1 Fact: Query:

mammal(human). mammal(human).

Resolution:
mammal(human).

mammal(human) mammal(human).
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Resolution example
Example 1 Facts: Query: Resolution: see slide 10 legs(horse,4).

legs(horse,4).
legs(horse,4) legs(horse,4),

mammal(horse), legs(horse, 2). mammal(horse), legs(horse, 2).

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 Turn the following sentences into formulae in first order predicate logic
John likes all kinds of food Apples are food Chicken is food Anything anyone eats and isnt killed by is food Bill eats peanuts and is still alive Sue eats everything Bill eats

Prove that John likes peanuts using backward chaining

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"x : food(x) likes(John, x) food(Apples)

food(Chicken)
"x :" x :eats(x,y) killed_by(x,y) food(x) eats(Bill, Peanuts) alive (Bill) "x:eats(Bill, x) eats(Sue,x) We have no ors. Drop the qualifiers to get the horn clauses
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1. likes(John, x) food(x).

2. food(Apples).
3. food(Chicken). 4. food(x) eats(x,y) killed_by(x,y).

5. eats(Bill, Peanuts).
6. alive (Bill). 7. eats(Sue,x) eats(Bill, x). 8. alive(x,y) killed_by(x,y). 9. killed_by(x,y) alive(x,y).

Proves that John likes Peanuts using resolution

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Horn clause example

The Euclidian algorithm to compute the gcd of two positive integers, u and v:
The algorithm The gcd of u and 0 is u The gcd of u and v, if v is not 0, is the same as the gcd of v and the remainder of dividing v into u.
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Horn clause example

greatest common divisor "u gcd(u, 0, u) " u, " v, " w, zero(v) gcd(v, u mod v, w) gcd(u,v,w) gcd(u,0,u) gcd(u,v,w) zero(v) gcd(v, u mod v, w) What is the greatest common denominator of 15, and 10. i.e. find and instantiation for X in gcd(15,10,X) What value of X makes gcd(15,10,X) True

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COMP313A Programming Languages

Logic Programming (3)

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Lecture Outline

Some Prolog Unification

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Some more prolog

Recursive rules example predecessor relation predecessor(X,Z) :- parent(X,Z). predecessor(X,Z) :- parent(X,Y), parent(Y,Z) And so on predecessor(X,Z) :- parent(X,Y), predecessor(Y,Z).
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Some more prolog

parent(pam,bob). parent(tom,bob). parent(tom,liz). parent(bob, ann). parent(bob, pat). parent(pat, jim).
? predecessor(pam,bob). ? predecessor(pam, ann). ? predecessor(pam, liz). ? predecessor(pam, X).
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A prolog program comprises clauses - facts, rules and queries

PROGRAM big(bear). big(elephant). small(cat). brown(bear). black(cat). grey(elephant). dark(Z) :- black(Z). dark(Z) :- brown(Z). ?dark(X), big(X).
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%clause 1 %clause 2 %clause 3 %clause 4 %clause 5 %clause 6 %clause 7 %clause 8

Data Objects Atoms versus numbers versus Variables

Atoms
strings of letters, digits, and the underscore character beginning with a lower case letter some strings of special characters can enclose strings of characters in single quotes e.g. Fred

Numbers
integers and floats

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Data Objects Atoms versus Variables

Variables are strings of characters, digits and underscores that begin with an uppercase letter or an underscore Can use the anonymous underscore
hasachild(X) :- parent(X,Y) hasachild(X) :- parent(X,_) ? parent(X, _)
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Data Objects Structured objects

objects that have several components
location(X, Y, Orientation). location(156, 786, 25). location(156, 786, Orientation).

location is the functor

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Structures
date(X,Y,Z). date(20, june, 2005). date(Day, june, 2005).
date(Day, Month, Year) :- Day > 0, Day <= 31,.

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data objects

simple objects

structures

constants

variables

atoms

numbers

These are all terms

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Operations on lists Membership

The member relation member(X,L)
? member(d, [a, b, h, d]). ? ? member(d, [a,b,[d h], e]). ? ?member([d, h], [a, [d,h], e f]). ?

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Membership
X is a member of L if
X is the head of L, or X is a member of the tail of L.
member(X, [X|Tail]).

member(X, [Head | Tail]) :- member(X,Tail).

Note two separate clauses

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Membership
X is a member of L if
X is the head of L, or X is a member of the tail of L, or X is a member of a sublist of L
member(X, [X|Tail]). member(X, [Head | Tail]) :- member(X,Tail). plus one more clause
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Concatenation
The concatenation relation conc(L1, L2, L3)
? conc([a,b], [c,d], [a,b,c,d]) yes ? conc([a,b], [c,d], [a, b, [c,d]]) no

?conc([a,b], [c,d], X).

X = [a,b,c,d]
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Concatentation
conc(L1, L2, Result)
If L1 is the empty list
then L2 and Result must be equal

If L1 is nonempty
then have [X|L1tail] recursively X becomes the head of Result and we use conc to find the tail of result [X|TailResult] Eventually will have exhausted L1 and TailResult will be L2.
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Concatentation

conc([], L, L). conc([X | L1], L2, [X | L3]) :- conc(L1, L2, L3).

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Unification

Matching clauses with variables Have to find the appropriate substitutions for variables so that the clauses match Process is called unification
Process by which variables are instantiated

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GCD example
gcd(u,0,u) gcd(u,v,w) not zero(v), gcd(v, u mod v, w) Using resolution the goal
gcd(15, 10, x)

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Unification in Prolog
A constant unifies only with itself
? me = me. Yes ?me = you. No Gcd(5, 0, 5) Gcd(5, 10, w) Gcd(5, 0, 5) Gcd(5, 0, w)
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Unification in Prolog
A variable that is uninstantiated unifies with anything and becomes instantiated with that thing
? me = X. X = me ? f(a,X) = f(Y, b). X=b Y=a ? f(X) = f(Y) gcd(u,v,w) not zero(v), gcd(v, u mod v, w), gcd(15, 10, x). gcd(15, 10, x) not zero(10), gcd(10, 15 mod 10, x), gcd(15, 10, x).
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Unification in Prolog
A structured term (predicate or function applied to arguments requires
Same predicate/function name Same number of arguments Arguments can be unified recursively

? f(X) = g(X) ? f(X) = f(a,b) ? f(a, g(X)) = f(Y, b) ? f(a, g(X)) = f(Y, g(b))
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Unification examples
Unify the following :
p(X,Y) and p(a, Z) p(X,X) and p(a,b) ancestor(X,Y) and ancestor(bill, W) p(X,a,Y) and p(Z,Z,b) p(Marcus, g(X,Y)) and f(x, g(Caesar, Marcus)) g(X, X) and g(f(X), f(X))
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COMP313A Programming Languages

Logic Programming (4)

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Lecture Outline

Some Prolog
lists

Unification

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Concatentation
conc([], L, L).

conc([X | L1], L2, [X | L3]) :conc(L1, L2, L3).

Can use concat to decompose lists How? Can use concat to define the member predicate -

member2(X, L) :- conc(L1, [X|L2], L).

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Adding and deleting

How do you add an item to a list?

Deleting an item from a list del(X, L, Result)

1. If X is the head of L result is the tail of L 2. If X is contained in the tail of L then recursively split L into its head and tail until X is at the head. Then 1 will apply.

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Deleting
del(X, [X|Tail], Tail]). del(X, [Y|Tail], [Y|Tail1]) :- del(X, Tail, Tail1) Deletes one occurrence from the list What happens when: del(a, [a, b, a, a], X). What if we changed it to
del(X, [X|Tail], Tail]).

del(X, [Y|Tail], [Y|Tail1]) :- del(X, Tail, Tail1), X=\=Y.

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Delete
What if we want to delete every instance from the list

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del (X, [], []). del (X, [X|Tail], Tail1) :- del (X, Tail, Tail1). del (X, [Y|Tail], [Y|Tail1]) :- del (X, Tail, Tail1).

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Relations/Terms/Queries An important note

You can define different relations with the same name but with different numbers of arguments e.g. member/1, member/2, member/3
If you leave off an argument prolog thinks it is a different relation If it is undefined for that number of arguments you will get an error message And if there is such a relation predefined.
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 Define two predicates evenlength(List) and oddlength(List) so that they are true if their argument is a list of even or odd length respectively. For example ? evenlength([a,b,c,d]) ? yes ?oddlength([c, d, e]) ?yes The trick is to define them as mutually recursive clauses. Start with []
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[] is even A list is even if its tail is odd A list is odd if its tail is even

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evenlength([]).
evenlength([First | Rest]) :- oddlength(Rest). oddlength([First | Rest]) :- evenlength(Rest).

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Unification

Matching clauses with variables Have to find the appropriate substitutions for variables so that the clauses match Process is called unification
Process by which variables are instantiated

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GCD example
gcd(u,0,u) gcd(u,v,w) not zero(v), gcd(v, u mod v, w) Using resolution the goal
gcd(15, 10, x)

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Unification in Prolog
A constant unifies only with itself
? me = me. Yes ?me = you. No Gcd(5, 0, 5) Gcd(5, 10, w) Gcd(5, 0, 5) Gcd(5, 0, w)
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Unification in Prolog
A variable that is uninstantiated unifies with anything and becomes instantiated with that thing
? me = X. X = me ? f(a,X) = f(Y, b). X=b Y=a ? f(X) = f(Y) gcd(u,v,w) not zero(v), gcd(v, u mod v, w), gcd(15, 10, x). gcd(15, 10, x) not zero(10), gcd(10, 15 mod 10, x), gcd(15, 10, x).
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Unification in Prolog
A structured term (predicate or function applied to arguments requires
Same predicate/function name Same number of arguments Arguments can be unified recursively

? f(X) = g(X) ? f(X) = f(a,b) ? f(a, g(X)) = f(Y, b) ? f(a, g(X)) = f(Y, g(b))
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Unification examples
Unify the following :
p(X,Y) and p(a, Z) p(X,X) and p(a,b) ancestor(X,Y) and ancestor(bill, W) p(X,a,Y) and p(Z,Z,b) p(Marcus, g(X,Y)) and f(x, g(Caesar, Marcus)) g(X, X) and g(f(X), f(X))
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COMP313A Programming Languages

Logic Programming (5)

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Lecture Outline

Cut operator Negation as Failure Control Information

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Backtracking
PROGRAM big(bear). big(elephant). small(cat). brown(bear). black(cat). grey(elephant). dark(Z) :- black(Z). dark(Z) :- brown(Z). ?dark(X), big(X).
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%clause 1 %clause 2 %clause 3 %clause 4 %clause 5 %clause 6 %clause 7 %clause 8

Controlling Backtracking
move(1,8). move(1,6). move(2,9). move(2,7). move(3,8). move(3,4). move(4,3). move(4,9). move(6,1). move(6,7). move(7,2). move(7,6). move(8,1). move(8,3). move(9,2). move(9,4).

1 4 7

2 5 8

3 6 9

Knights Tour Problem

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Controlling Backtracking
Find all the two-move paths
path2(X,Y) :- move(X,Z), move(Z,Y).

path2(1,W).
?W=1 ?W=3 ?W=1 ?W=7
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Controlling Backtracking
path2(X,Y) :- move(X,Z), !, move(Z,Y).
? path2(1, W). ?W=1 ?W=3
! is the cut operator
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Controlling Backtracking
path2(X,Y) :- move(X,Z), move(Z,Y),!.
? path2(1, W).

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Controlling Recursive Calls

predicate path determines if there is a path between two nodes.
path1(Z,Z,L). path1(X,Z,L) :- move(X,Y), not (member(Y,L)), path(Y, Z, [Y|L]).
path2((Z,Z,L). path2(X,Z,L) :- move(X,Y), not (member(Y,L)), path(Y, Z, [Y|L]), ! . path1(1,3, []). path2(1,3, []).

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Negation as Failure
Closed world assumption

The goal not (X) succeeds whenever the goal X fails!

?mother(amy, bob). ?not(parent(amy, bob)). Why did it fail?

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Negation as Failure
Nonmonotonic reasoning more information sometimes means fewer things can be proved
human(bob). ?human(X). ?not human(X). ?not (not human(X)). X = bob no X= X why?
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Control Information
Prolog uses a depth first search strateggy Therefore order is important
pred1(X,Z) :- parent(X,Z). pred1(X,Z) :- parent(X,Y), pred1(Y,Z). pred2(X,Z) :- pred2(Y,Z), parent(X,Y). pred2(X,Z) :- parent(X,Z).

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parent(pam,bob). parent(tom,bob). parent(tom,liz). parent(bob, ann). parent(bob, pat). parent(pat, jim). ? pred(tom, pat).

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COMP313A Programming Languages

Logic Programming (6)

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Some More Prolog

structures

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I/O in Prolog
Files associated with input and output streams I/O from terminal user In some Prologs only two files/streams are active at any one time
current input stream current output stream

see switches input streams tell switches output streams In prolog I/O is a side effect of the predicate
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Tkeclipse Prolog
stdin, stdout
standard input and output streams
?- write("fred"). Yes (0.00s cpu)

open a stream for input or output

open(SourceSink, Mode, Stream) ? open('//C/Documents and Settings/mjeff/My Documents/prolog/fred.txt', read, Fred), read_string(Fred, "\r\n ", 10, X). Fred = 31 X = "freddy" Yes (0.00s cpu)
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Bits and pieces

Anonymous variables
family(person(tom, fox, date(7,may, 1950), employed), person(ann, fox, date(9, may, 1951), employed), [person(pat, fox, date(5, may, 1973), unemployed), person(jim, fox, date(5, may, 1973), unemployed)]).
husband(X) :- family(X,Y, Z). Y and Z are singleton variables husband(X) :- family(X, _, _)
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More bits and pieces

Comparison operators
X>Y X<Y X >= Y X =< Y X=Y X \= Y X =:= Y X =\= Y

1+A=B+2

1+A=2+B

1 + 2 =:= 2 + 1 1 + A =:= B + 2

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Structures a family database

family(person(tom, fox, date(7,may, 1950), employed), person(ann, armstrong, date(9, may, 1951), employed), [person(pat, fox, date(5, may, 1973, unemployed), person(jim, fox, date(5, may, 1973), unemployed)]). family(_,_,_). family(person(_, fox, _, _), _, _). family(_, person(_,armstrong, _, _), _) family(_, _, [_, _, _]). % any family % the fox family % or the armstrong family

% any three child family family(_,person(Name, Surname, _, _), [_, _, _, | _]). % all married women who have at least three children

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husband(X) :- family(X, _, _). wife(X) :- f amily(_,X,_).

?- husband(X). X = person(tom, fox, date(7, may, 1950), employed) Yes (0.00s cpu) ?- wife(X). X = person(ann, armstrong, date(9, may, 1951), employed) Yes (0.00s cpu)

Problem this may be too simplistic

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husband2(X,Y) :- family(person(X,Y,_,_), _, _). married(X,Y) :- family(person(X, _, _, _), person(Y,_, _, _),_). married(X,Y) :- married(Y,X).

child(X) :- family(_, _, Children), member(X, Children). ?? child(X) ??

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but
?? child(pat) child(X) :- family(_, _, Children), mem_children (X, Children). mem_children (X, [person(X, _, _, _) | Tail]). mem_children (X, [person(Y, _, _, _) | Tail]) :- mem_children1(X, Tail).

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Selectors
Define relation which allow us to access particular components of a structure without knowing the details the structure This is data abstraction These selectors are useful when we want to create instances of families, for example

husband(family(Husband, _, _), Husband). wife(family(_, Wife, _), Wife).

children(family(_, _, Childlist), Childlist).

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Selectors
firstchild(Family, First) :- children(Family, [First | _]). secondchild(Family, Second) :- children(Family, [_, Second | _]).

nthchild(N, Family, Child) :- children(Family, ChildList),

nth_member(ChildList, N, Child).

firstname(person(Name, _, _,_), Name). surname(person(_, Surname, _, _), Surname).

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nth_member([X|_], 1, X). nth_member([_| L], N, Child) :- N1 is N-1, nth_member(L, N1, Child).

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Using them..
Tom Fox and Jim Fox belong to the same family and Jim is the second child of Tom
firstname(Person1, tom), surname(Person1, fox), % person1 is Tom Fox firstname(Person2, jim), surname(Person2, fox), %person2 is Jim Fox husband(Family, Person1), secondchild(Family, Person2). Person1 = person(tom, fox, _, _) Person2 = person(jim, fox, _, _) Family = family(person(tom, fox, _, _), _, [_, person(jim, fox, _,_) | _])
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Logic Puzzles
Use the following clues to write a prolog program to determine the movies the robots tinman, r2d2, johnny five, and a dalek starred in.
Neither Tinman nor Johnny five were one of the daleks in Dr Who and the Daleks The movie Short Circuit did not star Tinman. R2d2 wowed the audiences in Star Wars. A dalek did not star in the Wizard of Oz.
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Structure is important
Solution(L) :We want a binding for L which will contain the result we are after What is the result we want?

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L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

Now we have to supply a mechanism for instantiating X1..X4 We need a way of selecting a value and then checking it against some constraints

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L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

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L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

Robotslist = [tinman, dalek, r2d2, johnnyfive],

We will draw the values for X1..X2, from Robotslist

We do this using the member predicate

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L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

Robotslist = [tinman, dalek, r2d2, johnnyfive],

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L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

Robotslist = [tinman, dalek, r2d2, johnnyfive], member(X1, Robotslist), X1 \= dalek, member(X2, Robotslist), X2 \= tinman, X2 \= johnnyfive, member(X3, Robotslist), X3 = r2d2, member(X4, Robotslist), X4 \= tinman,
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X1

\=

dalek,

There are just two more things left to do

solution(L):-

L = [movie(X1, wizardofoz), movie(X2, drwhoandtheDaleks), movie(X3, starwars), movie(X4, shortcircuit)],

Robotslist = [tinman, dalek, r2d2, johnnyfive], member(X1, Robotslist), X1 \= dalek, member(X2, Robotslist), X2 \= tinman, X2 \= johnnyfive, member(X3, Robotslist), X3 = r2d2, member(X4, Robotslist), X4 \= tinman, X2 \= X1, X2 \= X3, X2 \= X4, X3 \= X1, X3 \= X4, X4 \= X1 print_movies(L).

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print_movies([A|B]) :- !, write(A), nl, print_movies(B). print_movies([]).

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