Watershed Hydrology, a Hawaiian Prospective: Evapotranspiration

Ali Fares, PhD Evaluation of Natural Resource Management, NREM 600 UHM-CTAHR-NREM

Objectives of this chapter

Explain and differentiate among the processes of evaporation from a water body, evaporation from soil, and transpiration from a plant Understand and be able to solve for evapotranspiration (ET) using a water budget & energy budget method Explain potential ET and actual ET relationships in the field.

Under what conditions are they similar? Under what conditions are they different? Understand and explain how changes in vegetative cover affect ET. Describe methods used in estimating potential and actual ET

Conservation of Energy

The conservation equation as applied to energy, or conservation of energy, is known as the energy balance. How precipitation is partitioned into infiltration, runoff, evapo-transpiration, etc., similarly, we can look at how incoming radiation from the sun and from the atmosphere is partitioned into different energy fluxes (where the term flux denotes a rate of transfer (e.g. of mass, energy or momentum) per unit area).

Water & Energy relationship

There is strong link between the water and energy balance: Partitioning of incoming radiation into the various fluxes of energy ( energy for ET, energy to heat the atmosphere and energy to heat the ground) depends on the water balance and how much water is present in soils and available for evapotranspiration. the partitioning of precipitation into the various water fluxes (e.g. runoff and infiltration) depends on how much energy is available for ET. Just as changes in water balance were reflected in changes in storage in water amounts (soil moisture in a root zone; level of a lake) changes in energy balance are reflected in temperature changes. Just as we wrote water balances for a number of different control volumes, we could write energy balances for the same control volumes.

Evapotranspiration

ET = P Q S - D
S= watershed storage variation (mm): SendSbeginning P = Precipitation (mm) Q = Stream flow (mm)

D
ET

= Seepage out seepage in (mm)

Energy Budget for an ideal surface

Energy budget is: Rn = H + LE + G where Rn is net radiation at the surface; H is sensible heat exchanged with the atmosphere; LE is latent heat exchanged with the atmosphere; and G is heat exchanged with the ground.

Net Solar Energy Flux

The net flux of solar energy entering the land surface is therefore given as K = Kin - Kout = Kin (1-a) where K in is the incident solar energy on the surface, and it includes direct solar radiation (i.e. that which makes it through the atmosphere unscathed) and diffuse (due to scattering by aerosols and gases); Kout is the reflected flux; a is the albedo Solar radiation is measured in specialized meteorological stations with radiometers.

Evapotranspiration

More than 95% of 300mm in Arizona > 70% annual precipitation in the US In General: ET/P is
~ 1 for dry conditions ET/P < 1 for humid climates &

ET is governed by available energy rather than availability of water

For humid climates, vegetative cover affects the magnitude of ET and thus, Q (stream flow). In Dry climate, effect of vegetative cover on ET is limited. ET affects water yield by affecting antecedent water status of a watershed high ET result in large storage to store part of precipitation

Evapotranspiration
evapotranspiration summarizes all processes that return liquid water back into water vapor - evaporation (E): direct transfer of water from open water bodies or soil surfaces - transpiration (T): indirect transfer of water from rootstomatal system of the water taken up by plants, ~95% is returned to the atmosphere through their stomata (only 5% is turned into biomass!) Before E and T can occur there must be: A flow of energy to the evaporating or transpiring surfaces A flow of liquid water to these surfaces, and A flow of vapor away from these surfaces. Total ET is change as a result of any changes That happens to any of these 3.

Three main factors affect E or T from evaporating & transpiring surfaces:

provide the latent heat of evaporation Ability to transport the vapor away from the evaporative surface Supply of water at the evaporative surface

Source of energy? Is solar radiation What take vapors away from evaporating surface? Wind and humidity gradient Evaporation includes:
Soil

-- vegetation surface transpiration => Evapotranspiration, ET

The linkage between water and energy budgets

Is direct; the net energy available at the earths surface is apportioned largely in response to the presence or absence of water. Reasons for studying it are:
To develop a better understanding of Hydrological

cycle Be able to quantify or estimate E and ET (soil, water or snowmelt)

Energy Budget

Net radiation: Rn=(Ws+ws)(1- )+Ia-Ig Rn is determined by measuring incoming & outgoing short- & longwave rad. over a surface. Rn can or + If Rn > 0 then can be allocated at a surface as follows: Rn = (L)(E) + H + G + Ps

L is latent heat of vaporization, E evaporation, H energy flux that heats the air or sensible heat, G is heat of conduction to ground and Ps is energy of photosynthesis. LE represents energy available for evaporating water Rn is the primary source for ET & snow melt.

In a watershed Rn, (LE) latent heat and sensible heat (H) are of interest. Sensible heat can be substantial in a watershed, Oasis effect were a wellwatered plant community can receive large amounts of sensible heat from the surrounding dry, hot desert. See Table 3.2 comparison See box 3.1 illustrates the energy budget calculations for an oasis condition.

An island of tall forest vegetation presents more surface area than an lowgrowing vegetation does (e.g. grass). The total latent heat flux is determined by:
LE = Rn + H

Advection is movement of warm air to cooler plantsoil-water surfaces. Convection is the vertical component of sensible-heat transfer.

Water movement in plants

Illustration of the energy differentials which drive the water movement from the soil, into the roots, up the stalk, into the leaves and out into the atmosphere. The water moves from a less negative soil moisture tension to a more negative tension in the atmosphere.

Yw~ -1.3 MPa

Yw~ -1.0 MPa

Yw~ -0.8 MPa Yw~ -0.75 MPa

Yw~ -0.15 MPa

Soil Water Mass Balance

Water Mass balance Equation

S =(I + R + U) - (D + RO + ET)

ET = Evapotranspiration R, I = Rain & Irrigation D = Drainage Below Rootzone RO = Runoff S = Soil Water Storage variation U = upward capillary flow

Rain

Transpiration

Evapo-transpiration Irrigation

Evaporation

Runoff
Root Zone Water Storage

Below Root Zone

Drainage

1000 Cumulative ET 800

Daily Evapotranspiration (mm)

600
3

400
2

200
1

ET Standard Deviation
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

Calendar Days (1997)

Cumulative Evapotranspiration (mm)

Daily ET

45 40
Cumulative drainage

900 750 600 450

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Daily drainage

300 150 0 4 3 2 1 0
120
May

Std. Dev. (mm)

4 3 2 1 0
0

Standard Deviation

Jan

30

Feb

60

Mar

90

Apr

150

Jun

180

Jul

210

Aug

240

Sep

270

Oct

300

Nov

330

Dec

360

Calendar Days

Cumulative drainage (mm)

Daily Drainage (mm)

0.6 0.5

1.8 m2 wetting area 16.3 m2 wetting area

7.3 m2 wetting area

Hourly ET (mm)

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0 27.0 27.5 28.0 28.5 29.0

Days of the Month (April 1996)

Cumulative Daily ET (mm)

5 4 3 2 1 0

1.8 m2 wetting area 16.3 m2 Wetting area 7.3 m2 Wetting area

27.0 27.2 27.4 27.6 27.8 28.0 28.2 28.4 28.6 28.8 29.0

Days of the Month (April 1996)

Rain/Irrig. (mm)

25 20 15 10 5 0 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 4 3 2 1 0 B A

Irrigation or Rainfall

Drainage (mm)

Drainage Below the Rootzone

Daily ET (mm)

Daily Evapotranspiration

March 30

April 9

April 19

Month Date

Y = 0.724 X
5

r2 = 0.88

Daily Evapotranspiration (mm)

Daily Potential Evapotranspiration (mm)

Effects of Vegetative Cover

ET / Potential ET

Available Soil Water

ET & Available Soil Water