SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

Mrs.S.Suganthi., Senior
Lecturer/ECE.
Mrs. A. Ahila Senior Lecturer/ECE
UNIT I
 SIGNAL
► Signal is a physical quantity that
varies with respect to time , space or
any other independent variable
Eg x(t)= sin t.
► the major classifications of the
signal are:
(i) Discrete time signal
(ii) Continuous time signal
 Unit Step &Unit Impulse
 Discrete time Unit impulse is defined as
δ [n]= {0, n≠ 0
{1, n=0
Unit impulse is also known as unit sample.
Discrete time unit step signal is defined by
U[n]={0,n=0
{1,n>= 0
Continuous time unit impulse is defined as
δ (t)={1, t=0
{0, t ≠ 0
Continuous time Unit step signal is defined as
U(t)={0, t<0
{1, t≥0
 SIGNAL

► Periodic Signal & Aperiodic Signal

 A signal is said to be periodic ,if it exhibits
periodicity.i.e., X(t +T)=x(t), for all values of t.
Periodic signal has the property that it is
unchanged by a time shift of T. A signal that does
not satisfy the above periodicity property is called
an aperiodic signal
► even and odd signal ?
 A discrete time signal is said to be even when, x[-
n]=x[n]. The continuous time signal is said to be
even when, x(-t)= x(t) For example,Cosωn is an
even signal.
 Energy and power signal

► A signal is said to be energy signal if

it have finite energy and zero power.
► A signal is said to be power signal if
it have infinite energy and finite
power.
► If the above two conditions are not
satisfied then the signal is said to be
neigther energy nor power signal
 Fourier Series
The Fourier series represents a periodic signal in terms
of frequency components:
p −1 ∞
ikω0n ikω0 t
x(n) = ∑ Xk e x( t ) = ∑ Xk e
k =0 k = −∞
We get the Fourier series coefficients as follows:

1 p −1 1p −ikω0 t
Xk = ∑ x(n)e −ikω0n Xk = ∫ x( t )e dt
p n =0 p0
The complex exponential Fourier coefficients are a
sequence of complex numbers representing the
frequency component ω0k.
 Fourier series

► Fourier series: a complicated waveform analyzed

into a number of harmonically related sine and
cosine functions

► A continuous periodic signal x(t) with a period T0

may be represented by:
 X(t)=Σ∞k=1 (Ak cos kω t + Bk sin kω t)+ A0

► Dirichlet conditions must be placed on x(t) for the

series to be valid: the integral of the magnitude of
x(t) over a complete period must be finite, and the
signal can only have a finite number of
discontinuities in any finite interval
 Trigonometric form for Fourier
series
► If the two fundamental components of a
periodic signal areB1cosω0t and
C1sinω0t, then their sum is expressed by
trigonometric identities:
► X(t)= A0 + Σ∞k=1 ( Bk 2+ Ak 2)1/2 (Ck cos kω t-
φk) or
► X(t)= A0 + Σ∞k=1 ( Bk 2+ Ak 2)1/2 (Ck sin kω
t+ φk)
UNIT II
 Fourier Transform

► Viewed periodic functions in terms of frequency components

(Fourier series) as well as ordinary functions of time
► Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to frequency
components (frequency response)
► Viewed LTI systems in terms of what they do to time-domain
signals (convolution with impulse response)
► View aperiodic functions in terms of frequency components
via Fourier transform
► Define (continuous-time) Fourier transform and DTFT
► Gain insight into the meaning of Fourier transform through
comparison with Fourier series
 The Fourier Transform
►A transform takes one function (or
signal) and turns it into another
function (or signal)
► Continuous Fourier Transform:
∞
H ( f ) = ∫ h ( t ) e 2πift dt
−∞
∞
h ( t ) = ∫ H ( f ) e −2πift df
−∞
 Continuous Time Fourier Transform
We can extend the formula for continuous-time Fourier
series coefficients for a periodic signal

1p −ikω0 t 1 p/2 −ikω0 t

Xk = ∫ x( t )e dt = ∫ x ( t )e dt
p0 p −p / 2
to aperiodic signals as well. The continuous-time
Fourier series is not defined for aperiodic signals, but
we call the formula
∞
X(ω) = ∫ x( t )e − iω t dt the (continuous time)
−∞ Fourier transform.
 Inverse Transforms
If we have the full sequence of Fourier coefficients for a
periodic signal, we can reconstruct it by multiplying the
complex sinusoids of frequency ω0k by the weights Xk
p −1
and summing: ∞
ikω0n ikω0 t
x(n) = ∑ Xk e x( t ) = ∑ Xk e
k =0 k = −∞

1 π
We can perform a similar reconstruction
iωn dω
∞ aperiodic
1 for iωt dω
x(n) =
signals ∫ X( ω)e x( t ) = ∫ X( ω)e
2π − π 2π − ∞
 Fourier Transform of Impulse Functions
Find the Fourier transform of the Dirac delta function:
∞ ∞
X(ω) = −iωt dt = δ( t )e −iωt dt = e −iω0 = 1
∫ x ( t )e ∫
−∞ −∞
Find the DTFT of the Kronecker delta function:
∞ ∞
−iωn −iωn −iω0
X( ω) = ∑ x(n)e = ∑ δ(n)e =e =1
n = −∞ n = −∞
The delta functions contain all frequencies at equal
amplitudes.
Roughly speaking, that’s why the system response to an
impulse input is important: it tests the system at all
 Laplace Transform
► Lapalce transform is a generalization of the Fourier transform in
the sense that it allows “complex frequency” whereas Fourier
analysis can only handle “real frequency”. Like Fourier transform,
Lapalce transform allows us to analyze a “linear circuit” problem,
no matter how complicated the circuit is, in the frequency domain
in stead of in he time domain.
► Mathematically, it produces the benefit of converting a set of
differential equations into a corresponding set of algebraic
equations, which are much easier to solve. Physically, it produces
more insight of the circuit and allows us to know the bandwidth,
phase, and transfer characteristics important for circuit analysis
and design.
► Most importantly, Laplace transform lifts the limit of Fourier
analysis to allow us to find both the steady-state and “transient”
responses of a linear circuit. Using Fourier transform, one can
only deal with he steady state behavior (i.e. circuit response
under indefinite sinusoidal excitation).
► Using Laplace transform, one can find the response under any
types of excitation (e.g. switching on and off at any given time(s),
sinusoidal, impulse, square wave excitations, etc.
Laplace Transform
 Application of Laplace
Transform to Circuit Analysis
 system

►• A system is an operation that

transforms input signal x into output
signal y.
 LTI Digital Systems
► Linear Time Invariant
• Linearity/Superposition:
► If a system has an input that can be
expressed as a sum of signals, then
the response of the system can be
expressed as a sum of the individual
responses to the respective systems.
► LTI
 Time-Invariance
&Causality
► Ifyou delay the input, response is just a
delayed version of original response.

► X(n-k) y(n-k)

► Causality could also be loosely defined by

“there is no output signal as long as there is
no input signal” or “output at current time
does not depend on future values of the
input”.
 Convolution
► The input and output signals for LTI
systems have special relationship in
terms of convolution sum and
integrals.

► Y(t)=x(t)*h(t) Y[n]=x[n]*h[n]
UNIT III
 Sampling theory
► The theory of taking discrete sample values (grid of
color pixels) from functions defined over continuous
domains (incident radiance defined over the film
plane) and then using those samples to reconstruct
new functions that are similar to the original
(reconstruction).
► Sampler: selects sample points on the image plane
► Filter: blends multiple samples together
 Sampling theory
► For band limited function, we can just
increase the sampling rate
► • However, few of interesting functions
in computer graphics are band limited,
in particular, functions with
discontinuities.
► • It is because the discontinuity always
falls between two samples and the
samples provides no information of the
discontinuity.
Sampling theory
Aliasing
 Z-transforms
► Fordiscrete-time systems, z-
transforms play the same role of
Laplace transforms do in continuous-
time systems
Bilateral Forward z-transform
∞
Bilateral Inverse z-transform
1
H [ z] = ∑ h[ n] z − n h[n] = ∫ H [ z ] z − n +1
dz
n = −∞ 2π j R

► Aswith the Laplace transform, we

compute forward and inverse z-
transforms by use of transforms pairs
and properties
 Region of Convergence
► Region of the ► Four possibilities
complex z-plane for (z=0 is a special
which forward z- case and may or
transform Im{z} may not beIm{z}
converges
Entire included)
Disk
plane Re{z} Re{z}

Im{z} Im{z}

Intersection
Complement of a disk and
of a disk Re{z} complement Re{z}

of a disk
 Z-transform Pairs
► h[n] = δ[n] ► h[n] = a n u [n ]
∞ 0

∑ δ [ n] z = ∑ δ [ n] z − n = 1
∞

∑ a u[ n] z
−n
H [ z] = H [ z] = n −n
n = −∞ n =0
n = −∞
Region of ∞
a ∞ n

= ∑ a z = ∑ n −n

convergence: entire n =0 n =0  z 

1 a
z-plane = if <1
a z
∞ 1 1−
δ [ n − 1] z = ∑ δ [ n − 1] z
► h[n]∑=
−n −n
H [ z] = = z −1 z
δ[n-1]
n = −∞ n =1

Region of
Region of convergence: |
convergence: entire z| > |a| which
is the
 Stability
► Rule #1: For a causal sequence, poles
are inside the unit circle (applies to z-
transform functions that are ratios of
two polynomials)
► Rule #2: More generally, unit circle is
included in region of convergence. (In
continuous-time, 1the imaginary axis
Z
u[ n] ↔
n
for z > a
would be ina the region
−1
1− a z of convergence
of the Laplace transform.)


 Inverse z-transform
c + j∞
1
f [ n] = ∫ F [ z ] z n −1
dz
2πj c − j∞
► Yuk! Using the definition requires a
contour integration in the complex z-
plane.
► Fortunately, we tend to be interested
in only a few basic signals (pulse, step,
etc.)
 Virtually all of the signals we’ll see can be
built up from these basic signals.

 Example
z 2 + 2z +1 ► Ratio of polynomial
X [ z] =
3 1
z2 − z +
2 2
z-domain functions
1 + 2 z −1 + z −2
► Divide through by
X [ z] =
3 1
1 − z −1 + z − 2 the highest power of
2 2
z
1 + 2 z −1 + z −2
X [ z] = ► Factor denominator
1 − z (1 − z )
 1 −1  −1

 2  into first-order
X [ z ] = B0 +
A1
+
A2 factors
1 −1 1 − z −1
1− z ► Use partial fraction
2
decomposition to get
first-order terms
 Example (con’t)
2
1 − 2 3 −1
z − z + 1 z − 2 + 2 z −1 + 1 ► Find B0 by
2 2
z − 2 − 3 z −1 + 2 polynomial
5 z −1 − 1 division
− 1 + 5 z −1
X [ z] = 2 +
 1 −1 
1 − z  1 − z
−1
( )
 2  ► Express in terms
1 + 2 z −1 + z −2 1+ 4 + 4
A1 = = = −9 of B0
1 − z −1 z −1 = 2
1− 2

1 + 2 z −1 + z − 2 1+ 2 +1
A2 = = =8
1
1 − z −1
1 ► Solve for A1 and A2
2 z −1 =1 2
 Example (con’t)
► Express X[z] in terms of B0, A1, and A2
9 8
X [ z] = 2 − +
1 −1 1 − z −1
1− z
2
► Use table to obtain inverse z-transform
n
1  
x[ n] = 2 δ [ n] − 9   u[ n] + 8 u[ n]
 2

► With the unilateral z-transform, or the

bilateral z-transform with region of
convergence, the inverse z-transform
is unique
 Z-transform Properties
► Linearity

a1 f1 [ n] + a2 f 2 [ n] ⇔ a1 F1 [ z ] + a2 F2 [ z ]

► Right shift (delay)

f [ n − m] u[ n − m] ⇔ z − m F [ z ]
 m 
f [ n − m] u[ n] ⇔ z F [ z ] + z  ∑ f [ − n] z − n 
−m −m

 n =1 
 Z-transform Properties
► Convolution
∞
f1 [ n] ∗ f 2 [ n] = ∑ f [ m] f [ n − m]
1 2
definition
m = −∞

 ∞ 
Z { f1 [ n] ∗ f 2 [ n]} = Z  ∑ f1 [ m] f 2 [ n − m] 
► Take z-transform
m = −∞ 
∞
 ∞  ► Z-transform
= ∑  ∑ f1 [ m] f 2 [ n − m]  z − n
n = −∞  m = −∞  definition
∞ ∞
= ∑ f [ m] ∑ f [ n − m] z
m = −∞
1
n = −∞
2
−n
► Interchange
∞ ∞ summation
= ∑ f [ m] ∑ f [ r ] z (
m = −∞
1
r = −∞
2
− r +m )

 ∞
 ∞

► Substitute r = n - m
=  ∑ f1 [ m]z − m  ∑ f 2 [ r ] z − r 
 m = −∞  r = −∞  ► Z-transform
= F1 [ z ] F2 [ z ]
definition
UNIT IV
 Introduction
► Impulse response h[n] can fully characterize a LTI
system, and we can have the output of LTI
system as
y[ n] = x[ n] ∗ h[ n]

►
Y z( )
= X
transfer or system function H(z).
z H( ) ( )
The z-transform of impulse response is called
z .
H (e ) = H ( z )
jω
z =1
► Frequencyz =response
1, at is valid
if ROC includes ( )
Y eand
jω
= X ( e jω ) H ( e jω )
 5.1 Frequency Response of LIT
System
jω jω j∠X ( e jω ) jω jω j∠H ( e jω )
► Consider X (e ) = X ( e ) e and H (e ) = H (e ) e
, then
 magnitude
Y ( e jω ) = X ( e jω ) H ( e jω )

 phase
jω jω jω
∠Y ( e ) = ∠X ( e ) + ∠H ( e )

► We will model and analyze LTI systems based on

the magnitude and phase responses.
 System Function

► General form
N of LCCDE
M

∑ a y [ n − k ] = ∑ b x[ n − k ]
k =0
k
k =0
k

N M

∑ k
a
k =0
z Y ( z −k
) = ∑ k X ( z)
b z −k

k =0
► Compute the z-transform
M

Y ( z) ∑k
b z −k

H ( z) = = k =0
X ( z) N

∑ k
a z
k =0
−k
 System Function: Pole/zero
Factorization
► Stability requirement can be verified.
► Choice of ROC determines causality.
► Location of zeros and poles determines

(1 − c z )
the frequency response and phase
M

b0 ∏ −1
k
zeros : c1 , c2 ,..., cM .

H ( z) = k =1

∏ (1 − d z )
N
a0 −1 poles : d1 , d 2 ,..., d N .
k
k =1
 Second-order System
► Suppose the system function of a LTI system
is H ( z) =
(1 + z −1 )2
.
1 −1 3 −1
(1 − z )(1 + z )
2 4

► Tofind the difference equation that is

−1 2 −1 −2
(1 + z ) 1 + 2z + z Y ( z)
satisfied by the
H ( z ) =
1 input 3 and1out3 of this
= =
X ( z)
system
(1 − z −1 )(1 + z −1 ) 1+ z −1 − z −2
2 4 4 8
1 3
y[n ] + y[n − 1] − y[n − 2] = x[n ] + 2 x[n − 1] + 2 x[n − 2]
4 8

► Can we know the impulse response?

 System Function: Stability
► Stability of LTI system:
∞

∑ h[n] < ∞
n = −∞

► This
condition is identical to the
∞
condition∑that
h[n ]z −n < ∞ when z = 1.
n = −∞

 The stability condition is equivalent to the

condition that the ROC of H(z) includes
the unit circle.
 System Function: Causality
► If the system is causal, it follows that h[n] must be
a right-sided sequence. The ROC of H(z) must be
outside the outermost pole.
► If the system is anti-causal, it follows that h[n] must
be a left-sided sequence. The ROC of H(z) must be
inside the innermost pole.
Im Im Im

a 1 a 1 Re a b
Re Re

Right-sided Left-sided Two-sided

(causal) (anti-causal) (non-causal)
 Determining the ROC
► Consider the LTI system
5
y[n ] − y[n − 1] + y[n − 2] = x[n ]
2

► The system
1 function is obtained as
H ( z) =
5 −1 −2
1− z +z
2
1
=
1 −1
(1 − z )(1 − 2 z −1 )
2
 System Function: Inverse
Systems
H i ( z) H ( z)
► is an inverse system for , if

G ( z ) = H ( z ) H i ( z ) = 1 ⇔ g [ n ] = h[ n ] ∗ hi [ n ] = δ [ n ]

1 1
Hi ( z) = jω
⇔ H i (e ) =
H ( z) H ( e jω )
► The ROCs ofH ( z ) and H i ( z )must overlap.
► Useful for canceling the effects of another system
► See the discussion in Sec.5.2.2 regarding ROC
 All-pass System
►A system of the−1 form (or cascade of
∗
these) H Ap ( Z ) = z − a pole : a = re jθ

−1
1 − az zero : 1 / a* = r −1e jθ

− jω ∗ jω
e −a − jω 1 − a * e
H Ap ( e ) =
jω
− jω
=e − jω
1 − ae 1 − ae

H Ap ( e jω ) = 1
 All-pass System: General Form
► In general, all pass systems have form
Mr
z −1 − d k M c ( z −1 − ek* )( z −1 − ek )
H Ap ( z ) = ∏ −1 ∏ −1 * −1
k =1 1 − d k z k =1 (1 − ek z )(1 − ek z )

real poles complex poles

Causal/stable: ek , d k < 1
 All-Pass System Example
Im
Unit
circle z-plane
M r = 2 and M c = 1

0.8
Re
4 3 0.5
− − 2
3 4

pole : re jθ reciprocal
  → zero : r −1e jθ
& conjugate

This all - pass system has M = N = 2 M c + M r = 4 poles and zeros.

 Minimum-Phase System
► Minimum-phase system: all zeros and all poles
are inside the unit circle.
► The name minimum-phase comes from a property
of the phase response (minimum phase-lag/group-
delay).
► Minimum-phase systems have some special
properties.
► When we design a filter, we may have multiple
choices to satisfy the certain requirements. Usually,
we prefer the minimum phase which is unique.
► All systems can be represented as a minimum-
UNIT V
 Example
y[n] = a1y[n − 1] + a2 y[n − 2] + b0x[n]
► Block diagram representation of
 Block Diagram
Representation
► LTI systems with
rational system
function can be
represented as
constant-coefficient
difference equation
► The implementation
of difference
equations requires
delayed values of
 Direct Form I
N M

∑ â y[n − k ] = ∑ b̂ x[n − k ]
k =0
k
k =0
k

► General form of difference equation

N M
y[n] − ∑ a y[n − k ] = ∑ b x[n − k ]
k k
k =1 k =0

► Alternative equivalent form

 Direct Form I M

∑ k
b z −k

H( z ) = k =0
N
1 − ∑ ak z −k
► Transfer function
 can
k =1
be written as
  M
1  −k 
H( z ) = H2 ( z )H1 ( z ) =   ∑ bk z 
 N 
−k  k = 0 


1 − ∑
k =1
a k z 

 M −k 
V ( z ) = H1 ( z ) X( z ) =  ∑ bk z X( z ) M

 k =0  v[n] = ∑ b x[n − k ]
k

► Direct Form  I Represents 

k =0
N

1
 y[n] = ∑ a y[n − k ] + v[n]
Y ( z ) = H2 ( z ) V ( z ) =   V( z)
k
k =1
 N 


1 − ∑
k =1
ak z −k


 Alternative Representation
► Replace order of cascade 
 LTI systems
 M
 1
H( z ) = H ( z )H ( z ) =  ∑ b z  −k 
 1 − 
1 2 k N
 k =0


∑ az 
 k =1
k
−k

N
w[n] = ∑ a w[n − k ] + x[n]
  k
  k =1
1
W( z ) = H2 ( z ) X( z ) =  X ( z ) M

 N  y[n] = ∑ b w[n − k ]
k
 1 − ∑ ak z 
−k
k =0
 k =1 
 M 
Y ( z ) = H1 ( z ) W( z ) =  ∑ bk z −k W( z )
 k =0 
 Alternative Block Diagram
► Wecan change the order of the
cascade systems
N
w[n] = ∑ a w[n − k ] + x[n]
k
k =1
M
y[n] = ∑ b w[n − k ]
k
k =0
 Direct Form II
► No need to store the same
data twice in previous
system
► So we can collapse the
delay elements into one
chain
► This is called Direct Form II
or the Canonical Form
► Theoretically no difference
between Direct Form I and II
► Implementation wise
 Less memory in Direct II
 Difference when using
finite-precision
arithmetic
 Signal Flow Graph
Representation
► Similar
to block diagram
representation
 Notational differences
►A network of directed branches
connected at nodes
 Example
► Representation of Direct Form II with
signal flow graphs w [n] = aw [n] + x[n]
1 4

w2 [n] = w1 [n]
w3 [n] = b0w2 [n] + b1w4 [n]
w4 [n] = w2 [n − 1]
y[n] = w3 [n]

w1 [n] = aw1 [n − 1] + x[n]

y[n] = b0w1 [n] + b1w1 [n − 1]
 Determination of System
Function from Flow Graph
w1 [n] = w4 [n] − x[n]
w2 [n] = αw1 [n]
w3 [n] = w2 [n] + x[n]
w4 [n] = w3 [n − 1]
y[n] = w2 [n] + w4 [n]
W1 ( z ) = W4 ( z ) − X( z ) (
αX( z ) z −1 − 1 )
W2 ( z ) =
W2 ( z ) = αW1 ( z ) 1 − αz −1 Y ( z) z −1 − α
H( z ) = =
W3 ( z ) = W2 ( z ) + X( z ) X( z ) z −1 (1 − α ) X( z ) 1 − αz −1
W4 ( z ) =
W4 ( z ) = W3 ( z ) z −1 1 − αz −1 h[n] = αn −1u[n − 1] − αn +1u[n]
Y ( z ) = W2 ( z ) + W4 ( z ) Y ( z ) = W2 ( z ) + W4 ( z )
Basic Structures for IIR
Systems: Direct Form I
Basic Structures for IIR
Systems: Direct Form II
 Basic Structures for IIR
Systems: Cascade Form
► General form for cascade implementation
M1 M2

∏ (1 − f z )∏ (1 − g z )(1 − g z )
k
−1
k
−1 ∗
k
−1

H( z ) = A k =1
N1
k =1
N2

∏ (1 − c z )∏ (1 − d z )(1 − d z )
k =1
k
−1

k =1
k
−1 ∗
k
−1

M1
b0k + b1k z −1 − b2k z −2
H( z ) = ∏ −1 −2
k =1 1 − a1k z − a2k z
► More practical form in 2nd order systems
 Example
H( z ) =
1 + 2z + z (1 + z
−1 −2
=
−1
)(1 + z )
−1

1 − 0.75z −1
+ 0.125z −2
(1 − 0.5z −1
)(1 − 0.25z )
−1

=
(1 + z )
−1
(1 + z )
−1

(1 − 0.5z ) (1 − 0.25z )
−1 −1

► Cascade of Direct Form I subsections

► Cascade of Direct Form II subsections

 Basic Structures for IIR
Systems: Parallel Form
► Represent system function using partial fraction expansion

H( z ) =
NP NP
Ak NP
(
Bk 1 − ek z −1 )
∑ Ck z − k
k =0
+∑
k =1 1 − ck z
−1
+∑
(
k =1 1 − dk z
−1
)(
1 − dk∗ z −1 )
NS
NP
e0k + e1k z −1
H( z ) = ∑C z k
−k
+∑ −1 −2
k =0 k =1 1 − a1k z − a2k z
► Or by pairingthe real poles
 Example
► Partial Fraction Expansion
1 + 2z −1 + z −2 18 25
( )
Hz = =8+ −
−1
1 − 0.75z + 0.125z −2
(
1 − 0.5z −1
) (1 − 0.25z −1 )

► Combine poles to get

− 7 + 8z −1
H( z ) = 8 +
1 − 0.75z −1 + 0.125z −2
 Transposed Forms
► Linear signal flow graph property:
 Transposing doesn’t change the input-
output relation1
H( z ) = −1
1 − az
► Transposing:
 Reverse directions of all branches
 Interchange input and output nodes
► Example:
 Example
Transpose

y[n] = a1y[n − 1] + a2y[n − 2] + b0x[n] + b1x[n − 1] + b2x[n − 2]

► Both have the same system function

or difference equation
 Basic Structures for FIR Systems: Direct
Form
► Special cases of IIR direct form
structures

► Transpose of direct form I gives direct form II

► Both forms are equal for FIR systems
 Basic Structures for FIR
Systems: Cascade Form
► Obtainedby factoring the polynomial
system function
MS

∏ (b )
M
H( z ) = ∑ h[n]z
n=0
−n
=
k =1
0k + b1k z −1 + b2k z −2
 Structures for Linear-Phase
FIR Systems
► Causal FIR system with generalized linear phase are
symmetric:
h[M − n] = h[n] n = 0,1,..., M (type I or III)
h[M − n] = −h[n] n = 0,1,..., M (type II or IV)
► Symmetry means we can half the number of
multiplications
► Example: For even M and type I or type III systems:
M M / 2 −1 M
y[n] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ] = ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ] + h[M / 2]x[n − M / 2] + ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ]
k =0 k =0 k = M / 2 +1
M / 2 −1 M / 2 −1
= ∑ h[k ]x[n − k ] + h[M / 2]x[n − M / 2] + ∑ h[M − k ]x[n − M + k ]
k =0 k =0
M / 2 −1
= ∑ h[k ]( x[n − k ] + x[n − M + k ] ) + h[M / 2]x[n − M / 2]
k =0
 Structures for Linear-Phase
FIR Systems
► Structure for even M

► Structure for odd M