Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Theory and Practice

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Examples of oscillation
ball on a spring

pendulum

rotating earth

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Pulse
The ball starts to oscillate as soon as it is pushed
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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Oscillation

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Movement of the ball over time

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Frequency

Time From the duration of one oscillation T the frequency f (number of oscillations per second) is calculated:

One full oscillation T

T f 1

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

The actual displacement a is termed as:

a A sin

a
Time

90

180

270

360
Phase

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Spectrum of sound
Frequency range Hz Description Example

0 - 20 20 - 20.000 > 20.000

Infrasound Audible sound Ultrasound

Earth quake Speech, music Bat, Quartz crystal

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Atomic structures
gas liquid solid

low density weak bonding forces

medium density medium bonding forces

high density strong bonding forces crystallographic structure

#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Understanding wave propagation:

Ball = atom

Spring = elastic bonding force

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

T
distance travelled

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

During one oscillation T the wave front propagates by the distance :

Distance travelled

From this we derive: T c c f

or

Wave equation
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation
Longitudinal wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound propagation
Transverse wave
Direction of oscillation

Direction of propagation

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wave propagation
Longitudinal waves propagate in all kind of materials. Transverse waves only propagate in solid bodies. Due to the different type of oscillation, transverse waves travel at lower speeds. Sound velocity mainly depends on the density and E-modulus of the material.
Air Water Steel, long Steel, trans 330 m/s 1480 m/s 5920 m/s 3250 m/s

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection and Transmission

As soon as a sound wave comes to a change in material characteristics ,e.g. the surface of a workpiece, or an internal inclusion, wave propagation will change too:

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Behaviour at an interface
Medium 1 Medium 2

Incoming wave

Transmitted wave

Reflected wave
Interface
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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Perspex - Steel

1,87 Incoming wave 1,0 0,87 Transmitted wave

Reflected wave

Perspex
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Steel
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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reflection + Transmission: Steel - Perspex

Incoming wave 1,0 0,13 Transmitted wave

-0,87 Reflected wave

Perspex
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Steel
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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Amplitude of sound transmissions:

Water - Steel Copper - Steel Steel - Air

strong reflection double transmission

no reflection single transmission

strong reflection with inverted phase

no transmission

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

+
Battery

Piezoelectrical Crystal (Quartz)

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

+
The effect inverses with polarity change
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect
Sound wave with frequency f

U(f)
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f
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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Piezoelectric Effect

Short pulse ( < 1 s )

A short voltage pulse generates an oscillation at the crystals resonant frequency f0

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Reception of ultrasonic waves

A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal surfaces.

Electrical energy

Piezoelectrical crystal

Ultrasonic wave

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Probes
socket crystal Damping Delay / protecting face Electrical matching Cable

Straight beam probe

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TR-probe
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Angle beam probe

#

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (short)

100 ns

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

RF signal (medium)

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound field

Crystal

Focus

Accoustical axis

Angle of divergence
6

D0

Near field

Far field

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

10

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

+ Uh

10
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument

+ Uh

0
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10
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic Instrument
+

Uv

Uh

0
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10
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Block diagram: Ultrasonic Instrument

amplifier

IP

screen
BE

horizontal
sweep clock pulser

probe work piece

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Sound reflection at a flaw

s

Probe

Sound travel path

Flaw

Work piece

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Plate testing
IP BE

plate

delamination

10

IP = Initial pulse

F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Wall thickness measurement

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

s

Theory and Practice

s
1

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Corrosion

10

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Through transmission testing

Through transmission signal

R
0 2 4 6 8 10

Flaw

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Weld inspection
a = s sin

F
s
0 20 40 60 80 100

a' = a - x d' = s cos d = 2T - t'

= probe angle s = sound path a = surface distance a = reduced surface distance d = virtual depth d = actual depth T = material thickness

Work piece with welding

a a'
Lack of fusion

s
#

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Straight beam inspection techniques:

Direct contact, single element probe Direct contact, dual element probe Fixed delay

Through transmission

Immersion testing

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Basic Principles of Ultrasonic Testing

Immersion testing
1
surface = sound entry

2
water delay

backwall
IP IE

flaw IP

1
BE

IE

2
BE
F

0
M. Berke - 02.05.2001

10

10
#

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