General Chemistry Course Course 2

The Periodic Table

Organization of the periodic table

The periodicity

Periods. To construct the table, we place each sequence in a separate row, which we call a period. The rows are aligned in such a way that the elements in each vertical column possess certain similarities. Groups. Each column of the periodic table is known as a group. The elements belonging to a given group bear a strong similarity in their chemical behaviors.

The Periodic Table

Periods in the Periodic Table

Groups in the Periodic Table

Elements in groups react in similar ways!

5

Regions of the Periodic Table

Group 1A: Alkali Metals

Reaction of potassium + H2O Cutting sodium metal

9

Group 2A: Alkaline Earth Metals

Magnesium

Magnesium oxide MgO

10

Group 7A: The Halogens (salt makers) F, Cl, Br, I, At

11

Group 8A: The Noble (Inert) Gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

Lighter than air balloons Neon signs Very Unreactive because they have full electron levels

XeOF4

12

Transition Elements

Lanthanides and actinides Iron in air gives iron(III) oxide Fe2O3

13

Mixture Heterogen
Macroscopic scale

Physical process

Homogen
Physical process

Elements

Chemical process

Compounds

Microscopic scale

Atoms

Chemical process

Molecules

Nucleus

Electrons
14

The structure of the atom (Atomic structure)

W. Thomson develops the plum pudding model: a cloud of positive charges; randomly distributed electrons. E. Rutherford develops an experimental model where the particle (the charge is +2 and the relative atomic weight is 4) depart from the source and pass through a thin gold foil. He registers the deviation of the particles: most of the particles are not deviated (there is plenty of empty space in the atom); some of the particles are slightly deviated (there are negatively charged particles, with much lower mass then the particles, in the atom the electrons); few particles are turned (there is a concentrated, positive atomic charge with the mass comparable to the particles).
15

Conclusion: Nuclear model

all the positive charge and quite the entire mass of atom is concentrated in a nucleus; the electrons are surrounding the nucleus. The chemical reactions do not affect the nucleus. The sum of the protons in the nucleus is called atomic number (Z).
+1 1p

proton

1n

neutron

The sum of the proton and neutron is called mass number (A). Two species having the same Z and different A are isotopes. E.g. 11H (proton); 21D (deuterium);
3 1T

(tritium)
16

Some rules for filling the orbital up

There are not two species with all the quantum numbers equal (Paulis Exclusion Principle). n = principal quantum number describes the energetic level of orbital (how far is the orbital from the nucleus); n = 1, 2,3 . l = azimuth quantum number describes the shape of the orbital; for n fixed, l = 1, 2,3, (n-1) m = magnetic quantum number describe the orientation of the orbital; for n,l fixed, m = -l, -(l-1), -(l-2), , 0, , (l-2), (l-1), l s = spin number describe the electron movement around its own axis, s= +1/2 and 1/2
17

Consequence In one orbital there are maximum two electrons.

1s 2s 2p 3p 3d 4p 3s 4s 5s E.g.
11Na

4d
4f 5f 5d

5p
6p 6d

6s
7s 7p 8s

31Ga

18

Chemical elements Every elements is characterized by: - name; - chemical symbol. Atomic number = proton number from the nucleus (its also the electron numbers)

Chemical symbol

Information from the periodic tables of the elements

Atomic mass

19

Allotropy Allotropy is a behavior exhibited by certain chemical elements: these elements can exist in two or more different forms, known as allotropes of that element. In each different allotrope, the elements atoms are bonded together in a different manner.
Allotropic forms of the carbon

Diamond

Graphite

20

Atomic mass

MA = pi mi

pi = isotopic abundance mi = isotopic mass

Units: 12 daltons = atomic mass of 12C 1 daltons (Da) = 1.660510-24 g

E.g. Chlorine

35Cl:

75,5%

37Cl:

24,5%

MA = 350,755 + 370,245 = 35,5 MA exacte = 35,453

21

Molecular Mass (MM) ni = no of atoms i MAi = atomic mass of atoms i

MM = niMAi

E.g. Water H2O MM = 21,008 + 115,999 = 18,015 daltons Glucose C6H12O6

MM = 612,011 + 121,008 + 615,999 = 180,156 daltons

22

Ions An ion is as atom or molecule which has lost or gained one or more electrons, making it negatively or positively charged.

Formation of positive charged ions (cation)

Atome Cu Cu Cations + Electrons Cu+1 + 1eCu+2 + 2e-

Formation of negative charged ions (anions)

Atoms + Electrons

Anions

Cl + 1eS + 2e-

Cl-1 S-2

23

Remember from the first chemistry course Mole is a quantity of substance containing NA particles Particles = atoms, molecules or ions

NA = 6.0221023 atoms/mol
Molar Mass (MM) Mass of one mol from a substance, expressed in grams The molar mass is equal with the molecular mass (or atomic), expressed in grams.

E.g. water H2O Molecular mass = 18.015 Da ; Molar mass = 18.015 mol/g
24

Exercise Water 1. How many moles are in 1kg of water? 1000 g / 18.015 g/mol = 55,5 mol 2. How many molecules are in 1kg of water? 55,5(6,0221023) = 3,341025 molecules

Iron

MA = 55,847 1mole = 55,847g, contain 6,0221023 atomes

3. How many atoms are in 1g? 1g / 55,847 g/mol = 0.0179 mol 0,0179(6,0221023) = 1,0781022 atoms
25

The Chemistry Laws

26

Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Ca(NO3)2 + 2H2O Calcium hydroxide + Nitric acid Calcium nitrate + Water Consequence: the coefficients
27

28

29

30

31

The low of perfect gas

An perfect gas is a gas where the molecules dont suffer any interactions.

PV = nRT
P pressure (Pascal Pa, 1 Pa = 1Nm-2 = 1kgm-1s-2; 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa V n T R volume (m3) moles number temperature (K)
-1 perfect gas constant (8,31 Jmol-1K-1 = 8,31 kgm2s-2mol-1K32

Exercise

1) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 0C and 1 atm?

n = 1 T = 273,15 K P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa V = nRT / P = (18,31273,15) / 1,014105 = 2,270103 / 1,014105 = 2,2410-2 m3 1m3 = 1000litres, V = 22,4 liters 1 mol occupied 22,4 liters at 0C and 1 atm

33

Exercise

2) What is the volume occupied by 1 mol of perfect gas at 25C and 1 atm?
n = 1 T = 298,15 K P = 1 atm = 1,014105 Pa V = nRT / P = (18,31298,15) / 1,014105 = 2,47810 3 / 1,014105 = 2,4410-2 m3 1m3 = 1000litres, V = 24,4 liters 1 mol occupied 24,4 liters at 25C and 1 atm

34

Calculation of chemical Equivalents

The Law of chemical equivalents the ratio between the mass and the chemical equivalent is a constant for each participant in a chemical reaction. Einorganic acid = Macid / number of hydrogen atoms e.g. EH SO /SO = M/2 = 98/2
2 4 24

Eorganic acid = Macid / number oh carboxyl groups

Ebases = Mbases / number of hydroxide groups e.g. ENaOH = M/1 = 40/1 Esalt and metallic oxide = M / number of metal atoms x valence e.g. ECaO = M/2*1 = 56/2 Eelectrochemical reaction = A element / number of exchanged electrons e.g. 2Al + 3 Cl2 = 2AlCl3 EAl = AAl/3 = 27/3

35