Psy 45 Personality: Theories and Applications

WHAT IS PERSONALITY Personality: is the impression an individual makes on others.

It refers to his charismatic qualities, social skill and the like (Hall, Calvin and Gary, 1985).

Whats in Common?
1. These beliefs lead to assumption that people are likely to have different

2. These notions imply that certain cat____ of people have a number of traits in common, even though their personalities are not

3. The notions of no personality and lots of personality imply that even though personality is internal, it has readily observable manifestations, commonly called

There are a number of important considerations here:

1. Internal traits are the source of external behaviors that logically correspond to the traits.

2. People cannot make valid inference unless they see frequent performances of behavior corresponding to

3. Common sense notions make it seem that personality can be assess fairly easily.

Psychologists View of Personality: A Working Definition

Personologists: are psychologists who specialized in the study of personality.

Elements of the Working Definitions 1. Individual difference generally refer to the observation that people differ in a

2. Behavioral dimension is a continuum having end points representing behavioral

Test: Shyness demonstration Test 3. A trait is an internal characteristics that corresponds to an extreme position on a behavioral dimension.

4. An individual possesses many different traits in various combinations called profile.

Complete the definition. A personality of an individual is a set of points falling along several dimensions behavioral, each corresponding to a trait,

Resulting in a unique profile, different from that of other individuals.

Test: Introvert- Extrovert Demonstration Test Implications and Cautions 1. Many personologists and laypersons believe that people are quite consistent across different situations.

2. Where single dimension are involved, individual can be very similar or even identical.

3. An overriding point of agreement between personologists and the people they study is the shared

Group Testing: Adapting testing and computerbased administration

Two-stage Adaptive testing with Three Measurement levels:

1. Routing test- the items covered a wide difficulty range. 2. Measurement testDifficult, Intermediate and Easy

Computer Adaptive Testing (CAT)- It utilized the item response theory (IRT) techniques for scoring individual performance.

For each item in the pool, there is an estimate of the ability required for a 50- 50 chance of passing that item.

This ability estimate is the score of the individual receives for passing that item.

It reflects the: Difficulty level Discriminative value Probability Guessing

Test Information FunctionThe sum of the item information functions, serves the same purpose as the traditional standard error of measurement (SEM).

Total Test Score- is derived from the ability estimates corresponding to each item passed.

This ability estimate is readjusted and refined as each new item is added until predetermined measurement precision is reached.

In general research by various methods indicates that individualized adaptive testing can achieved the same reliability and validity as conventional tests,

with a much smaller number of items and less testing time.

Course of Counseling
Important: clients/counselee are unique and predictable.

1. As clients are both unique and predictable so too are the theoretical approaches therapists use to help them cope with their problems and develop more satisfying lives.

2. The therapeutic process refers to an identifiable sequence of events taking place over time.

3. The process of therapy proceeds through 4 identifiable stages:

a.Phase

1: Creating a therapeutic climate. b.Phase 2: Problem discrimination

c. Phase 3: avoiding defensiveness. d. Phase 4: being consistent.

4. This therapeutic process is developmental.

PHASE 1: CREATING A THERAPEUTIC CLIMATE

A.Core

Conditions They are actually attitudes that must be expressed in a variety of ways.

1. Emphatic understanding is the ability to convey to clients that they can understand the clients world from the clients frame of reference.

a. This is also referred to as trial Identification.

b. Egan describes a therapists as using emphatic understanding when he or she: i. discriminates ii. communicates

2. Respect: the therapists conveying to clients that they have a positive regard for the client as a person of worth and value and for the clients potential to improve his or her life situation.

a. Carl Rogers uses the term positive regard in stressing respect as critical to the counseling process.

3. Genuineness: the therapists being themselves with clients and not hiding behind any professional role, but showing interest in a human being to human being exchange.

This is expressed in: a. Refusing to overemphasize your role b. Being spontaneous

c. Avoiding defensiveness d. Being consistent

4. Concreteness: concentrating on s____ feelings, thoughts and behaviors and encouraging clients to similarly concentrate on identifiable and thus changeable aspects of their intrapersonal functioning

B. Social Influencers Clients must be confident that their therapist can actually help them.

1. Expertness: the client believes that the therapists has the t____ and the ba____ to help them or her information, understanding, and

Clients perceptions of therapists as experts are influenced by: i. Ob_____ evidence of specialized training.

ii. Be_____ evidence of expertness. iii. Repu____ as an expert.

2. Attractiveness: the client li____ and res____ the therapist, feels comp____ with him or her, and wants to emulate some of the therapists

3. Tr_____ the client feels secure in the therapists ability and willingness to maintain confidentiality and respond to him ca____, res_____ and

The therapists perceived trustworthiness is based on their: a. Reputation for h_____ b. Social r____

c.Sin____

and open____ d.Lack of motivation for per_____ gain.

Psy 70 Counseling and Psyohotherapy PHASE 2: DISCRIMINATING AND DEFINING CLIENT PROBLEMS

A. OVERVIEW
1. The initial task in any counseling relationship is to d____ among diverse concerns and d____ a specific problem to

2. A client presents one or more concern s_____.

3. The counselor then helps the client to create and ex____ all possible definitions.

B. STIMULATING CLIENT EXPLORATION AND ELABORATION

1. The J____ window is a visual illustration of how exploration and elaboration of client problems

2. Area ____ is the information that both the client and the therapist know about the client.

3. Area____ is information the therapist has about the client is not____.

4. Area ____ is information the therapist has about the client of which the client is not a____.

5. Area 4 is information as yet un____ to either client or therapist.

C. RECOGNIZING NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. N____ behavior refers to all human communication events that transcend spoken or written words.

2. All persons constantly transmit information about themselves by the manner in which they may or dont make eye____, their body l____, and f____ expressions, v____ qualities, and pro____ behaviors.

a. EYE CONTACT
3. When the topics is interesting to clients, the pupils of their eyes tend to d____.

4. C____ differences are significant in understanding eye contact.

b. BODY LANGUAGE 5. A client leaning forward is likely in____d.

c. AUTONOMIC PHYSIOLOGICAL BEHAVIORS 6. Autonomic physiological responses such as blushing commonly suggest em_____.

d. VOCAL QUALITIES 7. A client v____ communicates much about he feels toward another person or situation.

e. FACIAL EXPRESSION 8. Smiles, frowns, raised eyebrows all communicate commonly recognized

Psy 70 PHASE 3: GOAL SETTING

PRETEST: Decide whether the goals stated below are good (write G) or bad (write B).

____1. To improve study habits. ____2. To decrease the frequency of selfdegrading

____3. To be happy. ____4. to have self- awareness. ____5. To find meaning in life.

____6. To learn how to identify the social significance in activities. ____7. To be men and women for others.

____8. To help the client develop more fully his elf actualizing potential. ____9. To be good. ____10. To be perfect.

A. TYPES OF GOALS 1.O___goals are the result clients expect to attain from

2. P___ goals are the objectives necessary to achieve the outcome goals.

B. Promoting New Perspectives 1. Clients need to develop new p_____ on their own problems so they can see more clearly where they want to be.

2. Therapist skills that can be employed to promote perspectives include:

a. in_____________ b. in_____________ c. c______________ d. s______________

C. Information-giving 1. Information- giving is the ____ communication of data or facts about ex____, e____, alternatives or people.

The therapist can give information to promote new perspective in four primary ways:

2.New information can help clients in becoming aware of possible al____ to help their present situation. 3. New information can also create new in_____.

4. Information giving is also valuable in helping clients correct in____ and un____ data.

5. Information- giving is commonly used to in____ clients in the content or procedures of specific theoretical orientations and intervention strategies.

6. Information giving follows w____, w____ and h____ guideline.

D. Interpretation The potential for therapists interpretation facilitating goalsetting depends on:

1.T____

is important. 2.Client should be ready to a____ an interpretation.

3. Do not interpret until the has gained some a____ and understanding of the subject.

4. Interpretations should be offered t____. 5. The therapist should check its ____.

E. Confrontation 1. Confrontation is defined as the pointing out of discrepancies between or among a____, t_____ and b_____.

There are several ground rules to remember when preparing to use confrontation:

2. Confrontation is a d____. 3. In describing a contradiction or a discrepancy, it should cite s____.

4. T____ is important. F. Self- disclosure defined as ______________.

1. Two forms: a. m____. b. e____-sharing

2. Three principles to be followed to ensure selfdisclosure is used effectively: ____, ____, ____.

Psy 40 PHASE 4: PROACTIVE PROBLEM INTERVENTION

A. Overview 1. Clients must actively function differently if they are to live a more satisfying existencethis is the essence of the term p____.

2. Clients critically need help in s____, im____ and e_____ interventions aimed at goal attainment.

B. Selecting Intervention Strategies From the point of view of the therapist, selecting intervention strategies should be based on specific

a._____

and ____

goals; b.Therapist's o____; c.R____ documentation;

d. Client pre____ and cha____; e. En____ context; f. Multiple in____.

1. Interventions selected should reflect previously agreed upon outcome and process ____.

2. Therapists emphasize the interventions based on the b____ they have about people and how people change.

3. Em____ support of a strategy clearly enhances its utility.

4. To give clients an informed choice, therapists should provide in____ about intervention

5. Below is the proposed outline for providing information about interventions and thereby eliciting client information.

a._____________ b._____________
c._____________ d._____________

6. It is equally critical to review any client c____ that might affect the efficacy of a particular

C. Implementing Intervention Strategies 1. V____ is includes three aspects: rationale for the intervention; overview of the intervention, and con____ of the clients willingness to use the strategy.

2. m____ is a procedure by which a person can learn through observing the actions of another

3. Most interventions involve some form of r____ in which the client practices the new desired

4. Helping clients t____ their changes in functioning from within the therapy session to real life completes the intervention.

D. Evaluating Intervention Strategies 1. Evaluation not only indicates the extent to which therapeutic g____ are achieved.

2. Therapy evaluation is used to see whether an intervention strategy is helping a client as it was designed to and whether the client is using the strategy a____ and sy____.

3. Types of evaluation data: a. _________________ b. _________________ c. _________________ d. _________________ e. _________________

Psy 70 Counseling and Psychotherapy DEVELOPING A

PRAGMATIC THERAPEUTIC POSITION

A. Elements of an Effective Therapeutic Position

1. Theory applied to counseling and psychotherapy has been defined as a statement of general principles, verified by d____, that explain certain phenomena.

2. Five requirements of a good theory whish can also be used to identify the basic elements of an effective therapeutic position.

a.It

must be c____. b.It must be c____. c.It must be explicit enough to generate r____.

d. It relates means to desired outcomes, stating specific procedure/process achieving an end

e. An effective therapeutic position is useful to its intended practitioners.

3. Personal v____ and ex____ are a large part of the therapeutic position that counselors and psychotherapists develop.

4. An effective therapeutic position requires a person to understand, advance and employ a conceptual f____ of both external and internal elements.

B. The Goal- Directed Nature of Counseling and Psychotherapy

1. The primary goal of counseling and psychotherapy is to help clients function better.

2. Positive changes is always the goal of meaningful therapy.

3. How people function , both internally answer with others, can be viewed as falling into three interrelated domains: affective, behavioral, and cognitive.

4. A change in one sphere of individuals being or functioning will affect the other two spheres.

5. The three domains are: a. Affective: changing how a person feels. b. Behavioral: changing how a person behaves.

C. Why a Pragmatic Therapeutic Position 1. There is consistency of theory and method.

2. Allegiance to one basic approach can provide a solid professional identity.

3. The p____ t____ position is a systematic reasoned program of counseling and psychotherapy grounded in primarily one major therapeutic position.

D. Counseling and Psychotherapy

1. Counseling and psychotherapy differ only in degree and emphasis.

2. In counseling, clients are adequately functioning individuals and in psychotherapy they are neurotic and

Psy 70 Counseling and Psychotherapy AFFECTIVELYORIENTED APPROACH

I. PERSONCENTERED THERAPY of PERSONAL POWER- CARL ROGERS

A. AffectivelyOriented Approaches

1. The most distinguishing characteristics of affectively oriented approaches to counseling and psychotherapy is their emphasis on underlying attitude that govern all of therapists actions with the client.

2. They are often correctly described as falling with in the humanistic psychology

3. Shafter (1978) identified five central themes of humanistic psychology.

a. The starting point for psychology in general is the conscious experience.

b. The here and nowthe immediate experience of the present moment is stressed along with the wholeness of human behavior.

c. Humans are limited by both biological and environmental factors. d. Humans needs cannot, be reduced to drives, need satisfaction, or unconscious determinants.

e. People can never be defined as a product or as an entity.

B. Personcentered Therapy
1. Person-centered therapy was developed by Carl Rogers.

2. Rogers retitled his approach as it pertains to the therapeutic relationship the person- centered approach.

C. Assumptions of Human Nature: Inherent Acceptance of Human Potential

1. Rogers promotes an abiding faith in peoples ability to develop in a positive and constructive manner if given an environment of respect and trust.

2. The environment, according to Rogers, is not an objective reality but rather a

3. An individuals sense of self emerges from interactions with the environment. 4. Psychological maladjustment comes from denying or distorting life situations.

D. Therapeutic goal: The Self- Actualizing Individual

Rogers (1961) described the selfactualizing person as exemplifying four characteristics:

1. Openness to experience, 2. Trust in ones organism, 3. Possession of an internal locus of control,

E. The Therapeutic Process The Relationship that helps the client to discover his or her capacity to use that relationship for change and growth has six necessary and sufficient

1. The

two persons in psychological contact. 2. The first, whom we shall term the client, is a state of incongruence, being vulnerable or anxious.

3. The second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent 4. The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client.

5. The therapist experiences as emphatic understanding of the clients internal frame of

6. The communication to the client of the therapists emphatic understanding and unconditional positive regard is to a minimal degree achieved.

Psy 70 guidance and Counseling

GESTALT THERAPHY: Reinstating Growth through Greater

A. Human Nature
The gestalt view of human nature is influenced by existential philosophy.

Passons (1975) identifies eight assumptions forming the framework for Gestalt therapy that clearly point out its existential underpinnings.

1. Individuals

are composite wholes made up of interrelated p____. 2. Individuals are also part of their own environment.

3. Individuals choose how they respond to external and internal stimuli. 4. Individuals have the potential to be fully aware of all their sensations, emotions,

5. Individuals are capable of making choices because of this awareness. 6. Individuals have the capacity to govern their own lives effectively.

7. Individuals cannot experience the past and the future, they can only experience themselves in the present. 8. Individuals are neither basically good

B. Enhancing Awareness of the Present Moment

Perls (1969) proposed the primary goal of the therapy was: __________________

1. Awareness,

by and of itself, is seen as curative. 2. Perls found that his clients were inclined to find ways to interrupt their flow in the present.

C. A Set of Powerful Techniques

Ivey and Simek-Downing (1980) exemplify the process of Gestalt therapy as a set of powerful techniques for enhancing awareness of interpersonal

1. They maintain that Gestalt therapys contribution is methodological rather than theoretical.

2. Levitsky and Perls describe as the rules and games, these rules include: a.Principle of the now, b.I and thou,

c. Using I language, d. The use of the awareness continuum, e. Asking clients to convert questions

Activity: I Have a Secret Write down something important and personal about yourself that you have never told anyone else- a secret wish, fantasy, feeling, belief, or something from your

If you cant think of anything, you can write down something you have told to one or two people who are close to them. My secret is____.

Psy 70 Counseling and Psychotherapy

EXISTENTIAL THERAPY: A PHILOSOPHY OF WHAT IT MEANS TO BE HUMAN

A. The Human Condition

1. The

existentialists primary concern to describe humans as emerging and becoming in their entirety.

2. Becoming a person is not an automatic process, yet all humans have the desire to realize this potential. _________________

3. Existential therapy is concerned with human existence and the possibilities of life.

4. Clients are capable of self-awareness, that unique and distinctively human feature that allows them to think and decide. __________________

5. The primary force in life is an individuals search for and that each person must develop a purpose in life and create values that give life substance. __________________

B. Authenticity as the Therapeutic Goal

Bugental proposed authenticity to be a primary existential value and a central concern of psychotherapy. three characteristics are

1. Being fully aware of the present moment, ________________ 2. Choosing how to live in that moment, ________________

3. Taking responsibility for the choice. _______________ ______________ _

C. Attitude as Part of the Therapeutic Process

1. The

recognition that no person can be completely understood by the use of rational thought and its products. _____________________

2. An awareness that information about the client, however wellorganized and sophisticated does not assist in understanding the essence of the client. _____________________

3. The recognition and growing acceptance that there is a kind of truth unique to the person who expresses it. __________________ __________________

4. An inquiring attitude regarding the significance of productive imagination. _________________

5. The ability to accept ambiguity. _______________ ______________ ______________ __

Psy 70 Counseling REALITY THERAPY

A. Reality therapy is basically active, d, _____ and didactic, and concrete approach that uses a

2. The therapists main task is to encourage clients to face reality and judge their present behavior.

3. Action is the primary focus. 4. Reality therapy includes what might be considered a basic existential assumption, tat a growth force impels human beings to

B. The Importance of Identity

1. Reality therapy is largely a product of a single person, dr. William Glasser,

2. He believed people are mainly motivated by trying to fulfill one basic need: the need for identity,

3. According to Reality therapy, it is most useful to consider identity in terms of success identity versus failure identity.

4. Glasser has stated that all clients who enter therapy have been unsuccessful in meeting their needs, and in trying to do so they often select ineffective behaviors that virtually

5. The key to individuals fulfilling their psychological needs and thus developing success identifies is responsible

6. Responsible behavior leads to formation of success identity

C. Asserting Responsible Action

1. The basic therapeutic goal of reality therapy is to help clients develop and maintain a success identity through responsible action.

2. Reality therapy attaches values to clients behaviors. 3. Responsibility is the foundation.

4. Reality therapy has been described as a common-sense approach to counseling. 5. People live in the real world.

Teaching and Learning Responsible Behavior 1. Teaching responsibility is the core of reality therapy.

2. The therapist must first become involve with the clients. 3. The therapists points out to the client the unrealistic aspects of his/her irresponsible behavior.

Psy 70 Counseling and Psychotherapy BEHAVIOR THERAPY

A. Characteristics of Behavior Therapy

1. The

present influence behavior, as opposed to historical determinants. 2. Observation of overt behavior change is the main criterion by which treatment is

3. Treatment goals are concrete and objective in order to make replication of treatment

4. The target problems in therapy are specifically defined so that treatment and measurement are possible.

B. Human Nature
1. The human personality as developing from consistent patterns of actions.

2. Individuals as product of experience. 3. Personality is formed from a positive and negative habitual patterns of learned behavior.

C. Therapeutic Goal
1. Specification

of some

target goals. 2. Specification of the conditions under which these behaviors are

3. Specification of some measure of personal or social change that is expected to result from the emission of the target behaviors under the specified

D. Classical Conditioning

1. Classical Conditioning involves connecting or pairing a UCS, unconditional stimulus with the CS, conditional stimulus.

2. The presence of the UCS automatically evokes an unconditional response, UCR.

3. If the UCS is paired with the CS with sufficient intensity and/or over a long period of time, then CS will come to elicit a conditioned response.

E. Systematic Desensitization
1. Systematic desensitization is a behavioral procedure used to eliminate or reduce maladaptive emotional responses

2. Reciprocal inhibitation is a term used to describe the form of classical conditioning that underlies systematic desensitization.

F. Progressive Relaxation 1. The first step is asking the client to get as comfortable as possible.

2. Then as the client to close his eyes and take a few deep breaths. 3. Tell the client in soft, soothing voice to tense a part of his

4. Tell the client to relax the tensed part of the body.

G. Constructing the hierarchy

1. The hierarchy is a graded series of situations or scenes that the client is asked to imagine while

2. It is usually helpful to develop an imaginary anxiety scale.

Psy 70 COGNITIVELYORIENTED APPROACHES Rational Emotive

Therapy A. CognitiveOriented

1. The central assumption of the cognitively- oriented approaches to counseling and psychotherapy is that learned misconception are the crucial factors which must be modified or limited before psychotherapy can be successful.

2. What are commonly considered the major cognitively-oriented approaches to counseling and psychotherapy most popular today include cognitive therapy, rationalemotive therapy, cognitive behavior modification.

3. An approach not always placed in the cognitive camp, but whose emphasis though interactional is clearly cognitive is transactional analysis.

B. Rational- Emotive Therapy

1. Given than individuals feel and act on what they think, rational- emotive therapy posits that certain types of thoughts result in extreme

C. A Cognitive Conceptualization of Human Nature 1. The first and basic principle of RET is that cognitions are the most important determinant of human emotion and behavior.

2. Some characteristics of dysfunctional thinking are: overgeneralization, oversimplification, exaggeration, faulty deductions, unproven assumptions, illogic and absolutistic notions.

IV. Facilities and Material Resources Counselin and

g Center
Desig n Locatio n Personn el

Equipmen t Budget

Furnishing and Equipment Material s Center Supplie s Communication s and Travel

Professional Development

3. Whenever individuals begin to feel and act extremely disturbed, the disturbance usually begins with a desire that gets blocked in some way.

4. A second and similarity irrational belief relates to awfulizing or devastation or catastrophizing cognition which exaggerate the negative consequences of a situation.

5. Finally, the third major irrational belief postulated by Ellis relates to individuals evaluations of their self- worth.

6. Individuals are not their behavior.

MORAL LESSON: We cannot judge a person by his one single action.

D. The ABCs of RET

1. Ellis proposes the major goal of RET to be minimizing the client control self- defeating outlook and acquiring a more realistic and tolerant philosophy of

2. In the ABC framework: A stands for activating emotional experiences, C stands for behavioral

B stands for beliefsystems. 3. Individuals beliefs systems have two parts: rational and

E. Expanding the ABCs

1. In expanding the model of ABCDE, clients learn how they can reduce distress and modify maladaptive behavior.

2. D stands for disputation/challenge process which clients learn to challenge and debate with themselves about their irrational thinking.

3. Walen et. al. offer an outline for disputing irrational beliefs once the A,B,C have identified.

a. Point

out to clients that as long as they hold- on to their irrational belief they will experience distress. b. Provide a rational

c. Once clients acknowledge that they would feel better and act more adaptively with this new belief use this feedback to encourage them to give- up their irrational beliefs.

d. Ask how valid the irrational belief is. e. Ask them to give-up their irrational beliefs.

4. After successful disputing their false beliefs, then at E clients will experiences a new emotional and behavioral affect.

IV. Facilities and Materials Resources Counselin and

g Center
Design Locatio n Personn el Clerical assistant s Material s Equipment Budget

Furnishing and Equipment Professional Developme nt Communicatio n and Travel Center Supplies

Counselor s Volunteer s

Paraprofessiona ls