Chapter 2 Computer Evolution
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millerChapter 2 Computer Evolution
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millerWilliam Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture
Chapter 2 Computer Evolution and Performance
Key Points
The evolution of computers has been characterised by increasing processor speed, decreasing component size, increasing memory size and increasing I/O capacity and speed Processor speed is as a result of shrinking factor in the processor components; reducing the distance between the components hence, increasing speed. True cause is the organisation of the processor e.g. pipelining and parallel execution techniques Critical issue here is the balancing of the performance of the various elements
A Brief History of Computers
First generation vacuum tubes
ENIAC The Von Neumann Machine Commercial computers
Second generation Transistors
The IBM 7094
Third generation Integrated Circuits Later generations
ENIAC - background
Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer By John Presper Eckert and Prof. John Mauchly at the University of Pennsylvania Worlds first general-purpose electronic digital computer Started 1943 Trajectory tables for weapons Finished 1946
Too late for war effort
Used until 1955
ENIAC - details
Decimal (not binary) 20 accumulators, each capable of holding 10 digits each Programmed manually by switches 18,000 vacuum tubes 30 tons 15,000 square feet 140 kW power consumption 5,000 additions per second
von Neumann/Turing
1945-first publication of the idea; the EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Computer) The manual programming was too tedious Stored Program concept by John Von Neumann; Alan Turing developed the idea at around the same time Main memory storing programs and data - a for suitable for storing in memory alongside data ALU operating on binary data Control unit interpreting instructions from memory and executing Input and output equipment operated by control unit Work on the computer begun at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. The computer was named, IAS Computer and was completed in 1952 This is the prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computer
von Neumann/Turing Components
A main memory that stores both data and instructions An ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) capable of operating on binary data A control Unit which interprets the instructions in memory an causes them to be executed Input and output (I/O) equipment operated by the control unit
Structure of von Neumann machine
CPU
Arithmetic and Logic Unit
Input Output Equipment
Main Memory
Program Control Unit
IAS - details
1000 storage locations (words) of 40 bits each; both data and instructions are stored here
Everything must be in Binary number Each number is represented by a sign bit and a 39bit value (see figure 2.2 on page 19 for the Williams book) 2 instructions per word of 20 bits each
0 1 39
Sign Bit 0 opcode 8 address 20 opcode 28 address 39
IAS - details
Set of registers (storage in CPU)
Memory Buffer Register (MBR) contains a word to be stored in memory or is used to receive word from memory Memory Address Register(MAR) specifies the address in memory of the word to be written from or read into the MBR Instruction Register(IR) contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed Instruction Buffer Register (IBR) employed to hold temporarily the right-hand instruction from a word memory Program Counter (PC)- contains the address of the next instruction-pair to be fetched from memory Accumulator(AC) and Multiplier Quotient (MQ) employed to hold temporarily operands and results of ALU operations; e.g a*b=c(80bits) so the most significant 40 bits are stored in the AC and the least significant stored in MQ
Structure of IAS - detail
Central Processing Unit Arithmetic and Logic Unit Accumulator MQ
Arithmetic & Logic Circuits MBR Instructions Main & Data Memory IBR IR PC MAR
Input Output Equipment
Control Circuits
Address
Program Control Unit
Commercial Computers
1947 - Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) US Bureau of Census 1950 calculations Became part of Sperry-Rand Corporation Late 1950s - UNIVAC II
Faster More memory
IBM
Punched-card processing equipment 1953 - the 701
IBMs first stored program computer What does IBM stand for? Scientific calculations
1955 - the 702
Business applications
Lead to 700/7000 series
Transistors
Replaced vacuum tubes Smaller Cheaper Less heat dissipation Solid State device Made from Silicon (Sand) Invented 1947 at Bell Labs William Shockley et al.
Transistor Based Computers
Second generation machines NCR (?) & RCA(?) produced small transistor machines IBM 7000 DEC - 1957
Produced PDP-1
Microelectronics
Literally - small electronics A computer is made up of gates, memory cells and interconnections These can be manufactured on a semiconductor
Generations of Computer
Vacuum tube - 1946-1957 Transistor - 1958-1964 Small scale integration - 1965 on
Up to 100 devices on a chip
Medium scale integration - to 1971
100-3,000 devices on a chip
Large scale integration - 1971-1977
3,000 - 100,000 devices on a chip
Very large scale integration - 1978 to date
100,000 - 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Ultra large scale integration
Over 100,000,000 devices on a chip
Moores Law
Increased density of components on chip Gordon Moore - cofounder of Intel Number of transistors on a chip will double every year Since 1970s development has slowed a little
Number of transistors doubles every 18 months
Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance Smaller size gives increased flexibility Reduced power and cooling requirements Fewer interconnections increases reliability
Growth in CPU Transistor Count
IBM 360 series
1964 Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series First planned family of computers
Similar or identical instruction sets Similar or identical O/S Increasing speed Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals) Increased memory size Increased cost
Multiplexed switch structure
DEC PDP-8
1964 First minicomputer (after miniskirt!) Did not need air conditioned room Small enough to sit on a lab bench $16,000
$100k+ for IBM 360
Embedded applications & OEM BUS STRUCTURE
DEC - PDP-8 Bus Structure
Console Controller
CPU
Main Memory
I/O Module
I/O Module
OMNIBUS
Intel
1971 - 4004
First microprocessor All CPU components on a single chip 4 bit
Followed in 1972 by 8008
8 bit Both designed for specific applications
1974 - 8080
Intels first general purpose microprocessor
Designing for Performance
The cost of computers continue to drop while the performance and capacity continue to rise However, the basic building blocks for todays computers are virtually the same as those of the IAS computer from over 50 years ago! The key idea is therefore the techniques for for squeezing performance out of the material.
Microprocessor Speed Speeding it up
Pipelining On board cache On board L1 & L2 cache Branch prediction Data flow analysis Speculative execution
See page 38 for details
Performance Mismatch
Processor speed increased Memory capacity increased Memory speed lags behind processor speed
Solutions
Increase number of bits retrieved at one time
Make DRAM wider rather than deeper
Change DRAM interface
Cache
Reduce frequency of memory access
More complex cache and cache on chip
Increase interconnection bandwidth
High speed buses Hierarchy of buses
Internet Resources
http://www.intel.com/
Search for the Intel Museum
