Introduction to Databases

Lecture One
Relational and Object-Oriented Database Concepts Introduction to Database Design and Techniques

Examples of Database Applications

Purchases from the supermarket Purchases using your credit card Booking a holiday at the travel agents Using the local library Taking out insurance Using the Internet Studying at university

File-Based Systems

Collection of application programs that perform services for the end users (e.g. reports). Each program defines and manages its own data.

Limitations of File-Based Approach

Separation and isolation of data

Each program maintains its own set of data. Users of one program may be unaware of potentially useful data held by other programs.

Duplication of data
Same data is held by different programs. Wasted space and potentially different values and/or different formats for the same item.
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Database Approach

Arose because:
Definition of data was embedded in application programs, rather than being stored separately and independently. No control over access and manipulation of data beyond that imposed by application programs.

Result:
the database and Database Management System (DBMS).
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Database

Shared collection of logically related data (and a description of this data), designed to meet the information needs of an organization. System catalog (metadata) provides description of data to enable programdata independence. Logically related data comprises entities, attributes, and relationships of an organizations information.

Database Approach

Controlled access to database may include:

A security system. An integrity system. A concurrency control system. A recovery control system. A user-accessible catalog.

A view mechanism.
Provides users with only the data they want or need to use.
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Views
Allows each user to have his or her own view of the database. A view is essentially some subset of the database.

Views

Benefits include:
Reduce complexity; Provide a level of security; Provide a mechanism to customize the appearance of the database; Present a consistent, unchanging picture of the structure of the database, even if the underlying database is changed.

History of Database Systems

First-generation
Hierarchical and Network

Second generation
Relational

Third generation
Object-Oriented
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The DBMS Marketplace

Relational DBMS companies Oracle, Sybase are among the largest software companies in the world. IBM offers its relational DB2 system. With IMS, a non-relational system, IBM is by some accounts the largest DBMS vendor in the world. Microsoft offers SQL-Server, plus Microsoft Access for the cheap DBMS on the desktop

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Terminology

Database: persistent collection of data Database Management System (DBMS): software that controls access to the database Database Administrator (DBA): person who controls database Data Model: general structure of the data in the database Data Language: commands used to define the data model and give users access to the database
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Utility of Databases

Data has value independent of use Organized approach to data management Eliminate redundancy in data Share data Archive data Security of data Integrity of data

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DB Terms and Techniques

Database access is a key feature of current enterprise computing Relational DB: tables To link/merge tables and extract/write information:
Structured Query Language (SQL) language of all modern databases (but many dialects)

SQL is transparent; operates with statements like SELECT, INSERT, DELETE, etc. SQL provides its result sets in table format
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DB and the Internet

One vs. multiple user access Internet browsers make it easy to access database programs (compared with traditional client/server programs)

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Relational Database Model

Database
Database is a collection of tables (relations) Data are stored in tables

Tables
Each table has a name Each table has a set of columns (fields) and rows of data (records) Each table has a fixed number of columns Each table has an arbitrary number of rows

Based on set theory SQL (Structured Query Language)

DBMS independent language
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Database Columns (Fields)

Columns
Each column has a name Columns are accessed by name No standard column ordering Data in a column belongs to a particular domain
Columns are the attributes of the dataset Each value in a column is from the same domain Each value in a column is of the same data type

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Database Rows (Records)

Rows
Each row entry is either a simple value or empty ("null") Rows are sets of values for the columns (attribute values) Primary key: a set of columns that uniquely identifies each row Each row must be unique given the primary key (no duplicates) Rows are referenced by the primary key Row order cannot be determined by the user Does not make sense to say the fourth row like it does in a paper table or spreadsheet

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Data Types

Each row value is an instance of a primitive data type

Integer Real (e.g., number, currency Character (e.g., text, hyperlink, yes/no) Date/Time

No complex types in standard DBMS (matrix, drawing)

MS Access will allow drawings and some objects Object oriented databases may allow objects and structures

Non existent value is null

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Database Design

Database design deals with how to design a database Importance of Good Design
Poor design results in unwanted data redundancy Poor design generates errors leading to bad decisions

Practical Approach
Focus on principles and concepts of database design Importance of logical design

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Database Design Goals

Create a balanced design which is good for all users Based on a set of assumptions about the world being modeled Determine the data to be stored Determine the relations among the data Determine the operations to be performed Specify the structure of the tables
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Database Design Process

1. 2.

3.

4. 5. 6. 7.

Identify all the objects, entities, and attributes Identify all the dependencies, draw a dependency diagram Design tables to represent the data items and dependencies Verify the design Implement the database Design the queries Test and revise
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Identify All Objects and Entities

Determine the objects of your Database For each object, describe each entity to be stored
example: better to store first name and last name separately

Determine the data type for each item

text, currency, date, etc.

Determine the range of allowable values for each item

non-negative? greater than zero? decimal points? any of the 50 state abbreviations zip code between 00000 and 99999 phone number

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Turn Data Items into Attributes

Each attribute should have:

a meaningful name a description of what the attribute means or what kind of data make up the attribute a domain
the data type of the attribute the range or a list of allowable values of the attribute

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Identify All the Dependencies

Assume a set of relationships between data items

a model of the world may have to make assumptions these assumptions should be listed clearly

Turn these relationships into dependencies

single-valued : there is one and only one value of x for every value of y a person Y receives a grade X for a course in a semester a person Y has a birth date X multi-valued : there are zero (or one) or more values of x for every value of y a student Y enrolls in one or more classes (X) each semester a person Y has zero or more sisters

Draw a dependency diagram

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Single-Valued (One-to-One) Dependencies

Draw a single-headed arrow for single-valued dependencies

a person has one and only one birth date

PERSON

BIRTHDATE

a student has one and only one final grade for a course

STUDENT

FINAL COURSE GRADE

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Multi-Valued (One-to-Many) Dependencies

Draw a double-headed arrow between multi-valued dependencies

a student can enroll in one or more classes

STUDENT

CLASSES

a person has zero or more sisters

PERSON

SISTERS
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Independent vs. Dependent Attributes

Some attributes are independent

E.g., in a business client relationship, your clients phone number does not depend on when you are scheduled to meet him your client still exists whether or not you have an appointment with him

Some attributes are dependent

the length of a side rails on a bridge is dependent on the structure of the bridge the side rails of a bridge would not exist if the bridge itself was not there
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Dependent vs. Independent Attribute Representation

Start a new bubble around an independent attribute

properties of that attribute are attached to the new bubble properties that are dependent on other attributes are attached to the old bubble Each appointment is with one or more clients. Each appointment with one or more clients has a time. Each client has a single phone number. PHONE NUMBER

APPOINTMENT

CLIENT

TIME 29

Design the Tables

Draw a dependency diagram Each dependency statement is a part of the diagram Each statement is a single path through the diagram Tables are formed by traversing the dependency diagram

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Traversing the Dependency Diagram

Choose an attribute at the end of a path Follow the chain of arrows upwards
each multi-valued dependency on the path becomes a primary key for the table combine all single-valued attributes at first level up into a single table all attributes on the path should be included in the table stop when you reach a bubble that has no arrows coming into it each path becomes a separate table

Mark off your traversed path Repeat until all paths have been traversed

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Verify the design

Inspect your tables

are all of the data included?

Do you have too many tables? too few? If your design does not appear correct
go back to step 1 you must repeat all steps of process in order do not try to rearrange dependency diagram to give you the tables you think you should have
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Common Database Design Mistakes

Assuming the order of rows and columns is known this is not a spreadsheet! do not assume sorted order unless you explicitly sort Guessing the design, not following the process Storing what you can compute (when the value will change) transitive dependency e.g., do not store age if you are already storing birth date Represent multi-valued dependencies in fixed size sets if you know that there are exactly X number of something, create X singlevalued dependencies, otherwise use multi-valued dependency Adding a key when a unique value exists adding an ID number for each person when you are already storing their social security number 33

Results

If you follow the process correctly

you will not have redundant data you will not lose unrelated data when you delete values

Databases with these characteristics are called 3NF (Third Normal Form) databases Normalization to be discussed later in the course

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Goal: Build a Business Application

Tools: Database Design SQL (queries) Programming
Design SQL

Design

Worst: Compensate for poor design and limited SQL with programming.
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Program

Best: Spend your time on design and SQL.

SQL

Program

Application Development
tasks Feasibility
Identify scope, costs, and schedule

Analysis
Gather information from users

Design
Define tables, relationships, forms, reports

Development
Create forms, reports, and help; test

Implementation
Transfer data, install, train, review

time

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DBMS Features/Components

Database engine
Storage Retrieval Update

Query Processor Data dictionary Utilities Security

Report writer Forms generator (input screens) Application generator Communications Programming Interface

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DBMS Engine, Security, Utilities

Product ItemID Description Order 887 Dog food OrderID ODate Customer 946 Cat food
9874 3-3-97 CustomerID Name 9888 3-9-97 1195 Jones 2355 Rojas

Data Tables
Database Engine
Data Dictionary Concurrency and Lock Manager Administration

Product Customer ItemID Integer, Unique CustomerID Description Integer, Text, 100 Unique char Name Text, 50 char
User Identification Access Rights Backup and Recovery

Security
Utilities

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Database Tables (MS Access)

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Database Tables (Oracle)

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DBMS Report Writer

All Data

Database Engine Data Dictionary

Query Processor Report Writer

Report Format and Query

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Report Writer (Oracle)

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DBMS Input Forms

All Data Database Engine Data Dictionary
Query Processor
Form Builder

Input Form Design

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DBMS Components

All Data Database Engine Data Dictionary Security

Query Processor

Communication Network

3GL Connector

Form Report Builder Writer Application Generator

Program

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Relational Database

Customer(CustomerID, Name,
Order(OrderID, CustomerID, OrderDate, ItemsOrdered(OrderID, ItemID, Quantity, Items(ItemID, Description, Price,

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Object-Oriented DBMS
Order
OrderID CustomerID NewOrder DeleteOrder

Customer
CustomerID Name Add Customer Drop Customer Change Address

OrderItem
OrderID ItemID OrderItem DropOrderItem

Item
ItemID Description New Item Sell Item Buy Item

ContactPhone ContactName Discount, ContactPhone NewContact NewContact

Government Customer Commercial ContactName Customer

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Objects

Object Definition Object Name Properties Methods Inheritance Combine into one table. Use multiple tables and link by primary key. More efficient. Need to add rows to many tables.

Class name Properties Methods

Customer CustomerID Address Phone AddCustomer DropCustomer

Inheritance
Commercial Contact VolumeDiscount Government Contact BalanceDue

ComputeDiscount

BillLateFees AddCustomer

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Objects in a Relational Database

Separate inherited classes. Link by primary key. Adding a new customer requires new rows in each table.
CustomerID Contact VolumeDiscount

Customer CustomerID Address Phone GovernmentCustomer CustomerID Contact BalanceDue

CommercialCustomer

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OO Difficulties: Methods
IBM Server Unix Server

Database Object
Personal Computer

Database Object
Customer Method: Add New Customer Program code

Application
Customer
Name Address Phone

How can a method run on different computers? Different processors use different code. Possibility: Java 49

End of Lecture

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