Quality : What is it ?

PP Sengupta Lecture 1

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Chief General Manager ( Operations) , Coal India Ltd at Kolkata for 6 years, 36 years in SCM and operations . Worked in World Bank projects as procurement lead Black Belt certification , six sigma Qualified lead assessor , ISO 9000 Certified TPM practitioner , Japanese Institute of Plant Engineers
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DEFINITIONS OF QUALITY
A degree of excellence [the Concise Oxford Dictionary] The totality of features and characteristics that bear upon the ability of a product or service to satisfy a given need [British Standard 4778] The total composite product and service characteristics of marketing, engineering, manufacture and maintenance through which the product and service will meet the expectations of the customer [Dr Armand V Feigenbaum]
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PERCEPTIONS OF QUALITY
JAPAN
SONY, TOYOTA

GERMANY
USA UK

BMW, MERCEDES
WATCHES

SWITZERLAND
MCDONALDS

TESCO ACER

TAIWAN

SINGAPORE SIA INDIA BASMATI RICE ,DARJEELING TEA

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DEFINITIONS OF QUALITY
Customer's expressed and implied requirements are met fully the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bears on its ability to meet a stated or implied need [ISO, 1994], fitness for use [Dr. Joseph M Juran, 1988], conformance to requirement [Philips B Crosby, 1979].

Definitions of Quality
Fitness for use (Juran) Conformance to requirements (Crosby) Degree of excellence Performance exceeding expectations (Q = P/E) The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs ANSI/ASQ 6

Defining Quality
ASQ (American Society for Quality): quality is a subjective term for which each person has his or her own definition www.asq.org

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Defining Quality
In technical usage, quality can have two meanings:
the characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs, and a product or service free of deficiencies

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Defining Quality - Gurus

Deming - non-faulty systems
Out of the Crisis

Juran - fitness for use

Quality Control Handbook

Crosby - conformance to requirements

Quality is Free

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Garvins Definitions of Quality

Transcendent Definition
Quality is something that is intuitively understood but nearly impossible to communicate such as beauty or love.

Product-Based Definition
Quality is found in the components and attributes of a product.

User-Based Definition
If the customer is satisfied, the product has good quality.
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Stouts View

Quality =

Performance Expectation

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Extended definitions
Quality meaning getting everyone to do what they have agreed to do and to do it right the first time is the skeletal structure of an organization, finance is the nourishment, and relationships are the soul Crosby extra-ordinary customer satisfaction or delighting the customers by extra little things
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Customer-based definitions
Edwards [1968] Quality consists of the capacity to satisfy wants... Gilmore [1974] Quality is the degree to which a specific product satisfies the wants of a specific consumer. Kuehn & Day [1962] In the final analysis of the marketplace, the quality of a product depends on how well it fits patterns of consumer preferences. Juran [1988] Quality is fitness for use. Oakland [1989] The core of a total quality approach is to identify and meet the requirements of both internal and external customers. 13

Value-based definitions
Broh [1982] Quality is the degree of excellence at an acceptable price and the control of variability at an acceptable cost. Feigenbaum [1983] Quality is the degree to which a specific product conforms to a design or specification Newell & Dale [1991] Quality must be achieved in five basic areas: people, equipment, methods, materials and the environment to ensure customers need are met. Kanji [1990] Quality is to satisfy customers requirements continually; TQM is to achieve quality at low cost by involving everyones daily commitment.

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Defining Quality- Different Views

Customers view (more subjective)
the quality of the design (look, feel, function) product does whats intended and lasts

Producers view
conformance to requirements (Crosby) costs of quality (prevention, scrap, warranty) increasing conformance raises profits

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Meaning of Quality: Producers Perspective

Quality of Conformance
Making sure a product or service is produced according to design
if new tires do not conform to specifications, they wobble if a hotel room is not clean when a guest checks in, the hotel is not functioning according to specifications of its design

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Meaning of Quality: Consumers Perspective

Fitness for use
how well product or service does what it is supposed to

Quality of design
designing quality characteristics into a product or service A Mercedes and a Ford are equally fit for use, but with different design dimensions

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Meaning of Quality: A Final Perspective

Consumers and producers perspectives depend on each other Consumers perspective: PRICE Producers perspective: COST Consumers view must dominate

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Meaning of Quality
Meaning of Quality

Producers Perspective

Consumers Perspective

Quality of Conformance
Production Conformance to specifications Cost

Quality of Design
Quality characteristics Price Marketing

Fitness for Consumer Use 19

Dimensions of Quality - Product

1. Performance Basic operating characteristics 2. Features Extra items added to basic features 3. Reliability Probability product will operate over time 4. Conformance Meeting pre-established standards 5. Durability Life span before replacement
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Dimensions of Quality - Product

6. Serviceability Ease of getting repairs, speed & competence of repairs 7. Aesthetics Look, feel, sound, smell or taste 8. Safety Freedom from injury or harm 9. Other perceptions Subjective perceptions based on brand name, advertising, etc
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Dimensions of Quality Service

1. Time & Timeliness 2. Completeness 3. Courtesy
Customer waiting time, completed on time Customer gets all they asked for Treatment by employees Same level of service for all customers Ease of obtaining service

4. Consistency

5. Accessibility & Convenience

6. Accuracy

Performed right every time

7. Responsiveness

Reactions to unusual situations

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Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured Products

Performance
basic operating characteristics of a product; how well a car is handled or its gas mileage

Features
extra items added to basic features, such as a stereo CD or a leather interior in a car

Reliability
probability that a product will operate properly within an expected time frame; that is, a TV will work without repair for about seven years
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Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured Products (cont.)

Conformance
degree to which a product meets preestablished standards

Durability
how long product lasts before replacement

Serviceability
ease of getting repairs, speed of repairs, courtesy and competence of repair person

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Dimensions of Quality: Manufactured Products (cont.)

Aesthetics
how a product looks, feels, sounds, smells, or tastes

Safety
assurance that customer will not suffer injury or harm from a product; an especially important consideration for automobiles

Perceptions
subjective perceptions based on brand name, advertising, and the like

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Dimensions of Quality: Service

Time and Timeliness
How long must a customer wait for service, and is it completed on time? Is an overnight package delivered overnight?

Completeness:
Is everything customer asked for provided? Is a mail order from a catalogue company complete when delivered?

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Dimensions of Quality: Service (cont.)

Courtesy:
How are customers treated by employees? Are phone operators nice and are their voices pleasant?

Consistency
Is the same level of service provided to each customer each time? Is your newspaper delivered on time every morning?

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Dimensions of Quality: Service (cont.)

Accessibility and convenience
How easy is it to obtain service? Does a service representative answer you calls quickly?

Accuracy
Is the service performed right every time? Is your bank or credit card statement correct every month?

Responsiveness
How well does the company react to unusual situations? How well is a telephone operator able to respond to a customers questions?

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Service Quality Dimensions

Assurance
The knowledge and courtesy of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence.

Empathy
Caring, individual attention paid to customers by the service firm.

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Quality Dimensions (Garvin, 1998)

Dimension
Performance Features

Meaning
Primary product characteristics Secondary characteristics added features

Conformance
Reliability Durability Service

Meet specifications or industry standards, workmanship

Consistency of performance overtime Useful life Resolution of problems and complaints, ease of repair

Response
Aesthetics Reputation

Human-to-human interface
Sensory characteristics Past performance, ranking first

Quality dimensions are independent focus on a few dimensions (e.g. Japanese cars reliability, conformance, and aesthetics) 30

Recognizing Different Perspectives on Quality

Different Perspectives on Quality
There are many different definitions and dimensions of quality. For the present, you should view quality as a measure of goodness that is inherent to a product or service. Employees working for the same firm often view quality differently as illustrated in the next slide.

Perceptions on Quality Can Vary

In order to communicate effectively about quality, managers need to recognize that differences in perceptions of quality exist.
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Historical Review
Middle age Craft Guilds (training) Industrial Revolution Specialization of labor Decline in workmanship, product still not complicated still 100% inspection 1924 Walter Shewhart developed statistical chart (Book: Economic Control of Quality of Manufactured Product) Dodge & Romig developed acceptance sampling as a substitute for 100% inspection 1942 - US Managers failed to recognize value of SQC 1946 ASQC (now ASQ) was formed
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Historical Review
1950 William Edwards Deming lectures CEOs in Japan on SQC 1954 Joseph Juran went to Japan Managements responsibility for quality 1960 Quality Control Circle (QCC) formed in Japan quality improvement 1980s US Quality Movement, TQM Concepts published
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Historical Review
Late 1980s automotive industry emphasize SPC, suppliers required to use Malcolm Balridge Award established (to measure TQM implementation) Taguchi method, Design of Experiments (DOE) 1990s ISO 9000 series became Global QA std., QS 9000 introduced by automotive industry customer satisfaction ISO 14000 2000 New ISO 9000:2000 version, Six Sigma Program introduced information 34 technology

Shift to Quality

Isolated Economies Focus on quantity

Period of change from quantity to quality

Global Economy Focus on quality

Pre-World War II

1945

1990s
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The journey
Six Sigma Quality Management Systems

Taguchi DOE SQC Inspection

1930

1950

1970

1980

1990

2000

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SPC

Process

Data LSL N2 USL

N1

C
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Quality Gurus
Walter Shewart
In 1920s, developed control charts Introduced the term quality assurance

W. Edwards Deming
Developed courses during World War II to teach statistical quality-control techniques to engineers and executives of companies that were military suppliers After the war, began teaching statistical quality control to Japanese companies

Joseph M. Juran
Followed Deming to Japan in 1954 Focused on strategic quality planning
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Quality Gurus (cont.)

Armand V. Feigenbaum
In 1951, introduced concepts of total quality control and continuous quality improvement

Philip Crosby
In 1979, emphasized that costs of poor quality far outweigh the cost of preventing poor quality In 1984, defined absolutes of quality management conformance to requirements, prevention, and zero defects

Kaoru Ishikawa
Promoted use of quality circles Developed fishbone diagram Emphasized importance of internal customer

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 Armand Feigenbaum author: Total Quality Control (1961) quality is a customer determination based on the customers actual experience with the product or service, measured against his or her requirements - stated or unstated, conscious or merely sensed, technically operational or entirely subjective - and always representing a moving target in a competitive market.

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W. Edwards Deming
Focus on bringing about improvements in product and service quality by reducing uncertainty and variability in goods and services design and associated processes (the beginning of his ideas in 1920s and 1930s). Higher quality leads to higher productivity and lower costs.

14 Points management philosophy.

Deming Cycle Plan, Do, Study, and Act.
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Influential Leaders in Quality Management

W. Edwards Deming 14 Points

Point 1: Create a Vision and Demonstrate

Commitment

Point 2: Learn the Philosophy Point 3: Understand Inspection Point 4: Stop Making Decisions Purely on

the Basis of Cost

Point 5: Improve Constantly and Forever Point 6: Institute Training Point 7: Institute Leadership
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Influential Leaders in Quality Management

W. Edwards Deming 14 Points

Point 8: Drive Out Fear Point 9: Optimize the Efforts of Teams Point 10: Eliminate Exhortations

Point 11: Eliminate Numerical Quotas

Point 12: Remove Barriers to Pride in Work Point 13: Encourage Education and Self-

Improvement Point 14: Take Action

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Demings 14 Points
1. 2. 3. 4. Create constancy of purpose Adopt philosophy of prevention Cease mass inspection Select a few suppliers based on quality 5. Constantly improve system and workers
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Demings 14 Points (cont.)

6. Institute worker training 7. Instill leadership among supervisors 8. Eliminate fear among employees 9. Eliminate barriers between departments 10. Eliminate slogans
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Demings 14 Points (cont.)

11. Remove numerical quotas 12. Enhance worker pride 13. Institute vigorous training and education programs 14. Develop a commitment from top management to implement above 13 points
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Deming Wheel: PDCA Cycle

4. Act
Institutionalize improvement; continue cycle.

1. Plan
Identify problem and develop plan for improvement.

3. Study/Check
Assess plan; is it working?

2. Do
Implement plan on a test basis.

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The Deming Cycle

Plan: study current situation Do: implement plan on trial basis Study: determine if trial is working correctly Act: standardize improvements
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Why Does It Matter That Difference Definitions of Quality Exist?

Understanding that definitions and dimensions of quality exist allows measures to be taken to provide a better basis for communication and planning in a firm.

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Recognizing Different Perspectives on Quality

Different Perspectives on Quality
There are many different definitions and dimensions of quality. For the present, you should view quality as a measure of goodness that is inherent to a product or service. Employees working for the same firm often view quality differently as illustrated in the next slide.

Perceptions on Quality Can Vary

In order to communicate effectively about quality, managers need to recognize that differences in perceptions of quality exist.
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Differing Functional Perspectives on Quality

Engineering Perspective Operations Perspective Strategic Management Perspective Marketing Perspective Financial Perspective Human Resources Perspective

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Engineering Perspective on Quality

Nature of Engineering Perspective
Engineers are interested in applying mathematical problem solving skills and models to the problems of business and industry.

Two of the major emphases in engineering

Product design Process design

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Engineering Perspective on Quality

Product Design Engineering
Involves all of those activities associated with developing a product from concept development to final design and implementation. Product design life cycle Key to quality as quality is assured at the design stage.

Concurrent engineering
The simultaneous performance of product and process design activities. Has resulted in improved quality and faster speed to market for new products.
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Engineering Perspective on Quality

Related Concepts
Life Testing
Is a facet of reliability engineering that concerns itself with determining whether a product will fail under controlled conditions during a specified life.

Redundancy
Is applied so that a back up system can take over for the failed primary system.

Statistical Process Control

Is concerned with monitoring process capability and process stability.

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Operations Perspective on Quality

Nature of Operations Perspective
The operations management view of quality is rooted in the engineering approach. Like engineers, operations managers are very concerned about product and process design. However, rather than focusing on only the technical aspects of these activities, operations concentrates of the management of these activities. Operations management has developed into an integrative field, combining concepts from engineering, operations research, organizational theory, organizational behavior, and strategic management.
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Operations Perspective on Quality

Systems View
Operations management utilizes the systems view to address quality problems that underlies modern quality management thinking. The systems view involves the understanding that product quality is the result of the interactions of several variables such as machines, labor, procedures, planning, and management.

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Operations Perspective on Quality

The Systems View of Operation Management
Figure 1.3 Planning Organizing

Inputs

Conversion Process

Outputs

Customers

Feedback
Controlling
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Operations Perspective on Quality

Operations/Marketing Interface
In recent years, a major advance in operations management has been the improved understanding of the operations/marketing interface. The interface has resulted in an increased focus on the customer. This externalized view is important as operations managers in firms still tend to be focused heavily on meeting production schedules, sometimes at the expense of good quality.

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Operations Perspective on Quality

Strategic View of Operations Management
Among the recent advances in operations management has been a migration towards a more strategic view. Ferdows and Demeyer linked this strategic view of operations management to quality management by proposing the Sand Cone Model in which quality was identified as the base on which lasting improvement in other competitive dimensions were established.

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Operations Perspective on Quality

An Operations Management Competence Model The Sand Cone Model
Figure 1.4

Cost Efficiency Speed

Dependability

Quality
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Strategic Management Perspective on Quality

Nature of the Strategic Management Perspective
Strategy refers to the planning processes used by an organization to achieve a set of long term goals. The planned course of action must be cohesive and coherent in terms of goals, policies, plans, and sequencing to achieve quality improvement. Initially, quality-related strategic planning was treated as if it were a separate exercise from firm-level strategic planning. However, quality management, to become pervasive in a firm, needed to be included in all of the firms business practices, including strategic planning.
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Strategic Management Perspective on Quality

A Generic Strategic Planning Process
Firm Mission and Goals
External Analysis Strategic Options Business Level Strategy Corporate Level Strategy Operational Subplans Organizational Design Conflict Politics and Change Strategic Alignment Between Structure and Goals Org. Reward Systems Internal Analysis

Figure 1.5

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Strategic Management Perspective on Quality

Goal of Strategic Quality Planning
The ultimate goal of strategic quality planning is to aid an organization to achieve sustainable competitive advantage. Research shows that quality is still the major concern of CEOs.

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Marketing Perspective on Quality

Nature of Marketing Perspective
Marketing efforts are often focused on managing perceptions of quality.

Relationship Management
Directing attention toward satisfying and delivering value to the customer.

Tools for Influencing Customer Perceptions of Quality

Price and advertising are the primary tools for influencing customer perceptions of quality, but are imperfect mechanisms.

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Marketing Perspective on Quality

A Marketing System

Organization
Offering Offering Offering Payment

Intermediary
Payment

Payment

Customer
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Marketing Perspective on Quality

Focus on Service
Another important contribution of the marketing perspective has been the focus on service. Customer service surveys are important tools for assessing the multiple dimensions of quality.

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Financial Perspective on Quality

Nature of the Financial Perspective
One of the most commonly asked questions about quality management is will it pay us financial benefits? The financial perspective relies more on quantified, measurable, results-oriented thinking. W. Edwards Deming made the first theoretical attempt to link quality improvements to financial results through the Deming Value Chain.

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Financial Perspective on Quality

The Deming Value Chain
Cost decrease because of less rework, fewer mistakes, fewer delays, snags; better use of machine-time and materials
Figure 1.8

Improve Quality

Productivity Improves

Capture the Market

Stay in
Business

Provide Jobs
and More Jobs

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Financial Perspective on Quality

Law of Diminishing Marginal Returns
According to this law, there is a point at which investments in quality improvement will become uneconomical. According to the quadratic economic quality level model, higher levels of quality will result in higher expenditures. This view is at odds with the ethic of continual improvement.

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Cost of Quality
Basic Economic Quality Level Model
Cost
Total Quality Costs = Sum of Losses and Gains
Figure 1.9

Minimum Cost Losses due to poor quality Optimum Quality Level

Costs of Improving Quality

Quality
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Human Resources Perspective on Quality

Nature of Human Resources Perspective
Understanding the human resources perspective on quality is essential as it is impossible to implement quality without the commitment and action of employees.

Related Concepts
Employee Empowerment Organizational Design Job Analysis 360-degree evaluation Total Quality Human Resources Management
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Human Resource Perspective on Quality

Employee Empowerment
Empowering employees involves moving decision making to the lowest level in the organization.

Organizational Design
Human resources managers are involved in many aspects of organizational design, such as the design of reward systems, pay systems, organizational structure, compensation, training mechanisms, and employee grievance arbitration.

Job Analysis
Involves collecting detailed information about a particular job.
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Human Resource Perspective on Quality

360-Degree Evaluation
A performance measurement system in which an employees peers, supervisors, and subordinates are involved in evaluating the workers performance.

Total Quality Human Resources Management (TQHRM)

TQHRM involves many of the concepts of quality management to provide a more supportive and empowered environment.
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The Three Spheres of Quality

Quality Control
Includes phases of analysis, relation, and generalization.

Activities relating to quality control include:

Monitoring process capability and stability Measuring process performance Reducing process variability Optimizing processes to nominal measures Performing acceptance sampling Developing and maintaining control charts
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The Three Spheres of Quality

Quality Assurance
Refers to activities associated with guaranteeing the quality of a product or service.

Quality assurance activities include tasks such as:

Failure mode and effects analysis Concurrent engineering Experimental design Process improvements

Design team formation and management Off-line experimentation Reliability/durability product testing

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The Three Spheres of Quality

Quality Management
The management processes that overarch and tie together the control and assurance activities.

Quality management activities:

Planning for quality improvement. Creating a quality organizational culture. Providing leadership and support. Providing training and retraining. Designing an organizational system that reinforces quality ideals. Providing employee recognition. Facilitating organizational communication.

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Other Perspectives on Quality

The Value-Added Perspective on Quality
A customer-based perspective on quality that is utilized by services, manufacturing, and public sector organizations. Involves a subjective assessment of the efficacy of every step of the process for the customer.

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Other Perspectives on Quality

Cultural Perspectives on Quality
International marketers have long noted that there are differences in tastes and preferences between cultures and nations. It is not so obvious that approaches to quality improvement may differ according to culture.

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Contingency Approach to Quality

Contingency Theory
Contingency theory presupposes that there is no theory or method for operating a business that can be applied in all situations. As a result, a coherent quality strategy will need to address key environmental variables.

Contingency Approach
Definitions and dimensions of quality applied within an organization will, and should vary. Dimensions of quality will depend on the environment in which a company operates. Provides flexibility to managers in pursuing quality.
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Understanding Quality Principles of Total Quality 1. A focus on customers and stakeholders,

2. A process focus supported by continuous improvement and learning, and

3. Participation and teamwork by everyone in the organization.
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The Quality Hierarchy

Prevention SPC

Total Quality Management Quality Assurance Quality Control

Incorporates QA/QC activities into company-wide system aimed at satisfying the customer

Actions to insure products or services conform to company requirements

Operational techniques to make inspection more efficient and to reduce the costs of quality. Inspect products

Detection

SQC

Inspection

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Quality Control
QC the use techniques and activities to achieve, sustain and improve quality of products or service. It integrates these related techniques and activities: Specifications of what is needed Design of the products/service to meet specs. Production or installation to meet full intent of specs. Inspection to determine conformance to specifications Review usage to provide information for revision of specs. if needed The aim should be towards quality 82 improvement

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Quality Assurance
All those planned or systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for quality Need systems and procedures to ensure consistency in methods for producing products

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Total Quality Management (TQM)

philosophy and a set of guiding principles foundation of continuously improving organization philosophy to achieve excellence process in set of interrelated activities using specific inputs to produce/deliver specific outputs process = business and production customers refers to external and internal suppliers also both external and internal customer-supplier chains

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Responsibility for Quality

Customer
Marketing

Product Service Packing & Storage

Quality Product / Service

Design Engineering

Inspection & Test

Procurement

(Purchasing)

Production

Process Design
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Responsibility for Quality

Quality not responsibility of any one person or department everyones job (operator to CEO) Start from marketing determine customer requirements until product received by satisfied customer Delegated to areas with authority to make quality decisions Areas responsible (figure next slide)

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Total Quality Management

Commitment to quality throughout organization

Principles of TQM
Customer-oriented Leadership Strategic planning Employee responsibility Continuous improvement Cooperation Statistical methods Training and education
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TQM and
Partnering
a relationship between a company and its supplier based on mutual quality standards

Customers
system must measure customer satisfaction

Information Technology
infrastructure of hardware, networks, and software necessary to support a quality program

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Quality Improvement and Role of Employees

Participative problem solving
employees involved in quality management every employee has undergone extensive training to provide quality service to Disneys guests

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Quality Circle
Organization
8-10 members Same area Supervisor/moderator

Presentation
Implementation Monitoring

Training
Group processes Data collection Problem analysis

Solution
Problem results

Problem Identification
List alternatives Consensus Brainstorming

Problem Analysis
Cause and effect Data collection and analysis

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Quality Management

Six Sigma
Defects are any mistakes or errors that are passed on to the customer (many people also use
the term nonconformance).

Defects per unit (DPU)=Number of defects discovered Number of units processed

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Quality Management

Six Sigma The Six Sigma concept characterizes quality performance by defects per million opportunities (dpmo), computed as DPU 1,000,000 opportunities for error (or, as is often used in services, errors per million opportunities epmo).

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Quality Management

Six Sigma
A DPU measure might be lost bags per customer. However, customers may have different numbers of bags; thus the number of opportunities for error is the average number of bags per customer.

If the average number of bags per customer is 1.6, and the airline recorded 3 lost bags for 8,000 passengers in one month (note: 12,800 opportunities for error in one month), then
epmo = (3/8,000 DPU) 1,000,000/1.6 = 234.375
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Quality Management

Six Sigmas DMAIC Process

1. Define: identify customers and their priorities; identify and define a suitable project; identify CTQs (critical to quality characteristics). 2. Measure: determine how to measure the process and how it is performing; identify key internal processes that influence CTQs and measure current defects. 3. Analyze: determine likely causes of defects and understand why defects are generated by identifying key variables that cause process variation.

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Six Sigmas DMAIC Process

4. Improve: identify means to remove causes of defects; confirm key variables; modify the process to stay within acceptable range. 5. Control: determine how to maintain improvements; put tools in place to ensure that key variables remain within acceptable ranges under the modified process.

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Cost of Quality Measurements

The cost of quality refers to the costs associated with avoiding poor quality or those incurred as a result of poor quality. Four major categories are:
Prevention costs are those expended to keep

nonconforming goods and services from being made and reaching the customer.

Appraisal costs are those expended on

ascertaining quality levels through measurement and analysis of data to detect and correct problems.
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Cost of Quality Measurements

Internal-failure costs are costs incurred as

a result of unsatisfactory quality that is found before delivery of good or service to the customer. poor-quality goods or services reach the customer.

External-failure costs are incurred after

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Seven Tools of Quality Management

The Seven QC Tools

1. Flowcharts: process mapping to identify the
sequence of activities or flow of materials/ information in a process.

2. Run Charts and Control Charts: a run chart

is a line graph with data plotted over time; control charts include control limits. ensure completeness.

3. Checksheets: simple tools for data collection, 4. Histograms: graphically represent frequency of
values within a specified group.
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Seven Tools of Quality Management

The Seven QC Tools

5. Pareto Diagrams: separate the vital few
from the trivial many causes; provide direction for selecting projects for improvement.

6. Cause-and-Effect Diagrams: represent chain of relationships; often called a fishbone diagram. 7. Scatter Diagrams: graphical component of
regression analysis.
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