3. Sinusoidal response.

By trigonometric identities.


Where .

Trigonometric identities.

Where .

) 20 . 5 (
1 1 ) 1 )( (
) (
2 2 2 2
2
2 2 2 2 (

+
+
+

+ +
=
+ +
=
e
e
e
et
t
et
t e t e
e
s s
s
s
KA
s s
KA
s Y
| | ) 21 . 5 ( ) sin( ) cos( ) exp(
1
) (
2 2
t t t
KA
t y e e et t et
t e
+
+
=
) 19 . 5 ( ) (
2 2
e
e
+
=
s
A
s X
) 22 . 5 ( ) sin(
1
) exp(
1
) (
2 2
2 2
| e
t e
t
t e
et
+
+
+
+
= t
KA
t
KA
t y
) ( tan
1
et |

=
) 23 . 5 ( ) sin( cos sin
2 2
| u u u + + = + b a b a
) ( tan
1
a b

= |
Remarks
1. In both (5.21) and (5.22), the exponential term goes to zero
as leaving a pure sinusoidal response.
Frequency Response ! (will be discussed later).
2. Since , amplitude is less than output f or
input . Amplitude attenuation !
t
1 1
2 2
< + t e
KA
A
Figure 5.6. Typical sinusoidal response.
Process
1
1
2
2
3
3
) (t u
) (t y
t e t e
) (e |
Phase lag
A
1
2 2
+ t e
KA
5.3 Response of Integrating Process Units
What is an Integrating Process?
; The process which has integrating unit( ) in its transfer function.
Open-loop unstable process(Non-self-regulating process).
Figure 5.7. Liquid level system with a pump(a) or valve(b).
s 1
y(t)
u(t)
i
q
q
Which process is an integrating process?
y(t)
u(t)
i
q
q
A process that cannot reach a new steady state when subjected to
step changes in inputs is called Open-loop unstable process or
Non-self-regulating process.
Answer ) (a) is the integrating process!

The flowrate of the effluent stream (b) increase automatically
if the level increase. Therefore, the influent flowrate is
increased then the level will increase and the effluent flowrate
also increased up to the influent flowrate so the level will
converge.
Liquid level system with a valve is a stable(or self-
regulating) process.

But, in (a), regardless of the level, the effluent flowrate is
constant due to the pump. So, if the influent flowrate is bigger
than the effluent stream the level always increase, vice versa.
That is, the difference between the influent flowrate and the
effluent flowrate is integrated to the process output(the level).
Liquid level system with a pump is a unstable(or non-
self-regulating) process.
Example
y(t)
u(t)
i
q
q
A
h
) 24 . 5 ( q q
dt
dh
A
i
=
) 25 . 5 ( ) ( ) ( ) ( s Q s Q s AsH
i
=
) 26 . 5 ( ) (
1 1
) (
1 1
) ( s Q
s A
s Q
s A
S H
i
=
Where is independent of . q
h
Integrating process !
Figure 5.8. Liquid level system with a pump.
5.4 Response of Second-Order Systems
A second order transfer function can arise physically,
Two first-order processes are connected in series.
Figure 5.9. Two first-order systems in series
yield an overall second-order system.
A second-order differential equation process model is
transformed.
) 27 . 5 (
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) (
) (
) (
2 1 2 1
2 1
+ +
=
+ +
= =
s s
K
s s
K K
s X
s Y
s G
t t t t
Standard form of the second-order transfer function.
) 28 . 5 (
1 2
) (
2 2
+ +
=
s s
K
s G
,t t
Where
is the process gain.
is the time constant which determines the speed of
response of the system.
is the damping factor which provides a measure of the
amount of damping in the system, that is, the degree of
oscillation in a process response after a perturbation.
K
t
,
Three important subcases.
Denominator of (5.28);
) 29 . 5 ( ) 1
1
)( 1
1
( 1 2
2 2
2 2
+
+
+

= + +
, ,
t
, ,
t
,t t
s s
s s
) 30 . 5 (
1
2
1

=
, ,
t
t
) 31 . 5 (
1
2
2
+
=
, ,
t
t
Roots ;
; unstable second-order system that would have an
unbounded response to any input.
0 < ,
1. Step response.
) 32 . 5 (
) 1 2 (
) ( , ) (
2 2
s s s
KM
s Y
s
M
s X
+ +
= =
,t t
1 = ,
) 34 . 5 ( )] exp( ) 1 ( 1 [ ) (
t
,
t
t t
KM t y + =
Case b. , double root: Critically damped.
1 > ,
) 33 . 5 )]}(
1
sinh(
1
)
1
)[cosh( exp( 1 { ) (
2
2
2
t t
t
KM t y
t
,
,
,
t
,
t
,

=
Case a. , root are real and distinct: Overdamped.
Case c. , complex root: Underdamped.
)]}
1
sin(
1
)
1
)[cos( exp( 1 { ) (
2
2
2
t t
t
KM t y
t
,
,
,
t
,
t
,

=
1 0 < s,
) 35 . 5 ( )} 1 sin( ) exp(
1
1
1 {
2
2

t
,
t
,
,
+

=
t t
KM
Where
) 1 ( tan
2 1
, , =

Figure 5.10. Step response of critically-damped and overdamped(a),
and underdamped(b) second-order processes.
Remarks
Responses exhibiting oscillation and
overshoot( ) are obtained only for values of
less than one.
Large value of yield a sluggish response.
The faster response without overshoot is obtained for
critically damped case( ).
1 > KM y
,
,
1 = ,
A number of terms that describe
the dynamics of underdamped
processes.
1. Rise time( ) is the time the process
output takes to first reach the new
steady-state value.
2. Time to first peak( ) is the time
required for the output to reach its first
maximum value.
3. Settling time( ) is defined as the
time required for the process output
reach and remain inside a band whose
width is equal to of the total
change in .
4. Overshoot.
5. Decay ratio.
6. Period of Oscillation( ) is the time
between two successive peaks or two
successive valleys of the responses.
r
t
p
t
s
t
y % 5
b a OS =
a c DR =
P
Figure 5.11. Performance characteristics
for the step response.
Rise time.
) 36 . 5 ( ) (
1
2
t
,
t

=
r
t
(
(
(
(

= +
+

=
0 ) 1 sin(
) 1 sin( ) exp(
1
1
1 1
2
2
2

t
,

t
,
t
,
,
t
t t

Time to first peak.

=
p
t
| | 0 = dt dy
Overshoot.
) 38 . 5 ( ) 1 exp(
2
, t, = OS
] ) 1 exp( ) ( [
2
, t, = = = KM b t t y a
p

Decay ratio.
) 39 . 5 ( ) 1 2 exp( ) (
2 2
, t, = = OS DR
] ) 1 3 exp( ) 1 3 ( [
2 2
, t, , tt = = = KM b t y c
Period of oscillation.
) 40 . 5 (
1
2
2
,
tt

= P
Figure 5.12. Relation between some performance characteristics of an
underdamped second-order process and the process damping coefficient.
2. Sinusoidal response.
) 41 . 5 ( ) (
2 2
e
e
+
=
s
A
s X
) 42 . 5 (
) 1 2 (
) (
2 2
3
2
2
1
1
2 2 2 2
e
e o
t
o
t
o
e
e
,t t
+
+
+
+
+
=
+

+ +
=
s
A
s s
s
A
s s
KM
s Y
As , the first and second terms vanish.
Thus the output for large values of time is obtained as follows.
t
) 43 . 5 ( ) sin(
) 2 ( ] ) ( 1 [
) (
2 2 2
| e
,et et
+
+
= t
KA
t y
Where
]
) ( 1
2
[ tan
2
1
et
,et
|

=

Amplitude ratio
) 44 . 5 (
) 2 ( ] ) ( 1 [
2 2 2
,et et +
=
K
AR
Normalized amplitude ratio
) 45 . 5 (
) 2 ( ] ) ( 1 [
1
2 2 2
,et et +
=
N
AR
The maximum value of can be found by
differentiating (5.45) with respect to . e
N
AR
) 46 . 5 ( 707 . 0 0 ,
2 1
,
1 2
1
2
max
2
max
< <

= ,
t
,
e
, ,
N
AR
For , there is no maximum. 707 . 0 > ,
Figure 5.13. Sinusoidal response amplitude of a
second-order system after exponential terms have
become negligible.
At high frequency, the
output is well damped.
At low frequency, the
output is not damped
well.