Hormone is a chemical messenger secreted by a specific endocrine

gland of the body, transported by body fluids, producing specific effect on a target tissue or organ in the body. Many intricate neuroendocrine feedback systems control the production & release of hormone in the organism. A number of hormones like MSH, ACTH, Vasopressin, Oxytocin etc. affect the behaviour of the organism. A new branch called Behavioural Endocrinology or Psychoendocrinology has developed, which deals with the hormones and behaviour in animals. Generally hormones show various effects or behavioural changes in animals which affects social life of animal and adaptation. Natural selection is better seen when comes to behaviour as the more powerful an animal is can survive worthly.

In order to understand the role of hormones in our behaviour scientists have conducted fundamental research using laboratory animals. Frank Beach is generally considered to be the founding father of the study of the effects of hormones on behaviour - an area of scientific investigation that is known today as behavioural endocrinology or psychoendocrinology. His first book, Hormones and Behavior (1948), summarizes all that was known at the time and organized the field for all subsequent investigators.

FRANK BEACH

Adaptive behaviour

It has been that in several animals male androgens

are responsible for aggressiveness. Sevenster & Wilz (1961) performed an experiment on stickleback fishes. It had been observed male stickleback due to aggressiveness kill other males by biting when injected high level of testosterone. Wilz (1970) confirmed that even when the dead males are removed from that particular site aggressive male starts killing female ones. The main hormone responsible for the aggressive behaviour of an animal is high level of testosterone and low level of serotonin. This is the reason males are more aggressive than females.

Stickleback

Eagles fighting with each other

Dolphins

Koel

Beach (1971) divided female behaviour (in rats )into the

following three phasesReceptivity: the females ability to copulate. Proceptivity: describes the female's eagerness to copulate with a male. This can be assessed by recording the extent to which Lordosis in female mouse is a reflex females approach and spend time with males, and emit female which usually occurs when a male sexual behaviours. grasps the female's flanks Attractiveness: a measure of how attractive a female is to a male. Sexual behaviour in male rats consists of three behaviours: Mount: the animal assumes the copulatory position on top of the female but does not insert his penis into the female's vagina Intromission: the male mounts the female and briefly (200300 milliseconds) inserts his penis. Semen is not released during intromissions or mounts. After 10 to 12 intromissions spaced 20-30 seconds apart, the rat ejaculates semen. The main hormone responsible for sexual behaviour in female are high level of estrogens and androgens in male. LHRF released from the hypothalamus have direct effects on Female stickleback laying eggs copulatory behaviour (Moss and McCann, 1973) in vertebrates.

Sexual Behaviour In Female And The Release Of Hormone During Estrus Cycle-

Maternal behaviour is elicited in the

Maternal care in monkey

absence of certain hormones. Lisk (1971) has observed that estrogen and progesterone work in synergy in stimulating maternal nest building. During parturition, oxytocin level is high which affects the behaviour of mother. Experimentally injections of oxytocin influence maternal behaviour. Various hormone like progesterone, oxytocin, relaxin, estrogen, prolactin etc. complete maternity of female.

Spider building web

In only 6% mammalian species, including humans,

Silvery hair Marmoset with baby marmoset

Baby penguin under the care of father

the father plays a significant role in caring for his young. An increase in levels of oxytocin, glucocorticoids, estrogen and prolactin occur in the paternal brain. These hormonal changes occur through the father's interaction with the mother and his offspring. Oxytocin levels are positively correlated with the amount of affection the father displays towards the child. Marmoset fathers have enhanced dendritic spine density in the prefrontal cortex. This increase correlates with increase is vasopressin receptors in this area of the paternal brain.

It is a form of animal social structure in which a linear or nearly linear ranking exists, with each animal dominant over those below it and submissive to those above it in the hierarchy. Dominance hierarchies are best known in social mammals, such as baboons and wolves, and in birds, Fighting for dominance notably chickens. A dominant animal is one whose sexual, feeding, aggressive and other behavior patterns subsequently occur with relatively little influence of the other group members. Subordinate animals are opposite; their behavior can be relatively easily influenced or inhibited by other group members. It have been observed that male hormones mainly Best example can be seen in Lions for dominance hierarchy testosterone and androgen are responsible for this behaviour.

In ethology, the term territory refers to any sociographical area

that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics. The ultimate function of animals inhabiting and defending a territory is to increase the individual fitness or inclusive fitness of the animals expressing the behaviour. Fitness in this biological sense relates to the ability of an animal to survive and raise young. Most commonly, this is accomplished by depositing strongsmelling substances contained in the urine, faeces, or, from specialized scent glands located on various areas of the body. This type of marking includes pheromones in insects and discharge of typical scent through urine or sweat glands. Males and female ring-tailed lemurs (Lemur catta) scent-mark both vertical and horizontal surfaces at the overlaps in their home ranges using their anogenital scent glands.

Typical marking like release of scent or pheromones is done by animals and insects

 It is an animal behavior is the storage of food in

locations hidden from the sight of both conspecifics (animals of the same or closely related species) and members of other species. The term hoarding is most typically used for rodents, whereas caching is more commonly used in reference to birds, but the behaviors in both animal groups are quite similar. Food gathering can be classified as guarding, shared or individual hoarding, pilferage, reciprocal pilferage, recaching, deception. It has been observed that low level of testosterone and estrogen make the organism to hoard food.

Honey bees and Ants gathering food

Several long term research projects have captured a good

deal of attention. These include ape-language experiments such as the Washoe project and Project Nim. Several studies have shown that performance is better on, for example, a color discrimination (e.g. blue vs. green) after the animal has learned another color discrimination (e.g. red vs. orange) than it is after training on a different dimension such as an X shape versus and O shape. The reverse effect happens after training on forms. Thus, the earlier learning appears to affect which dimension, color or form, the animal will attend to. Memory has been widely investigated in foraging honeybees, Apis mellifera, which use both transient shortterm working memory that is non-feeder specific and a feeder specific long-term reference memory. ACTH and MSH are responsible for learning capability of an animal.

Neoteny also called juvenilization, is one of the

Ambystoma

three ways by which paedomorphism can arise. Paedomorphism or paedomorphosis is the retention by adults of traits previously seen only in juveniles, and is a subject studied in the field of developmental biology. In Neoteny, the physiological(or somatic) development of an organism (typically an animal) is slowed or delayed. In contrast, in paedogenesis, sexual development occurs faster. Both processes result in paedomorphism. Ultimately this process results in the retention, in the adults of a species, of juvenile physical characteristics well into maturity and paedogenesis, the reproduction in a neotenized state. Growth hormones are responsible for this process.

The occurrence of different forms, stages, or

Polymorphism in bugs

types in individual organisms or in organisms of the same species, independent of sexual variations is called polymorphism. In bees, the presence of queen, worker, and drone is an example of polymorphism. Differences between the sexes and between breeds of domesticated animals are not considered examples of polymorphism. The occurrence of several forms or colors in one species of insect is also an example of polymorphism. The hormones responsible for polymorphism are mainly Juvenile hormone and MSH

Molting in pupa

Molting or ecdysis, is the manner in

which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer layer or covering), either at specific times of the year, or at specific points in its life cycle. Brain releases ecdysiotropin which stimulates release of molting hormone (MH) from Prothoracic Gland in arthropods Growth hormones are responsible for molting in vertebrates.

Molting can be seen in snakes

When male frog croaks, it has been

seen the female starts attracting towards them. This is due inducing of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) and there after gonadotropins in female are released. Also in other animals like parrot, whenever male starts singing the female swings with the tune and is attracted to male due to induced action in it for the release of gonadotropin.

Parrot singing and frog croaking

Adaptive behavior is a type

of behavior that is used to adjust to another type of behavior or situation. This is often characterized by a kind of behavior that allows an individual to change an unconstructive or disruptive behavior to something more constructive. These behaviors are most often social or personal behaviors. Vasopressin and ACTH are responsible for adaptive behaviour.

All animals adjust according to environment for survival

Aggressive behaviour Sexual behaviour Maternal behaviour Paternal behaviour

High level of testosterone and low level of serotonin Estrogens and androgens Estrogen, progesterone & oxytocin Glucocorticoids increase in paternal brain

Dominance hierarchy
Territorial marking

Testosterone and androgen

Food gathering
Learning capability Neoteny & paedogenesis Polymorphism Molting Inducing hormone of other Adaptive behaviour

Low level of testosterone and estrogen