NENG 506 Mechanics of

Nanomaterials
Class 8
J. Lloyd

Mid-Term Exam
NENG 506 2014
Take home exam
Due next Tuesday
CRSS
BCC materials have 3 different slip plane families


The slip direction family is


Assuming we are loading a cylindrical single crystal
specimen oriented in the 210 direction, choose a
slip system from each family of planes and compare
the critical resolved shear stress on those systems
to the applied stress
All else being equal, which slip system would you
expect to operate first
{ } { } { } 321 211 110
111
Generalities
Draw an engineering and a true stress strain
curve and identify the important features
Yield Stress
Ultimate Tensile stress
Youngs Modulus
Identify where you would expect to see slip
initiate
Draw for both ductile and brittle materials

True Strain
For most materials even during plastic strain,
the strained material is incompressible,
meaning that the volume doesnt change.
Density measurements show a change of less than
0.1% change even after large plastic strain
It can be shown that for plastic strains


This implies a Poissons ratio of for all materials
experiencing plastic strain
Note that for elastic strain, this is generally not the case
0 = + +
z y x
c c c
True Stress
This constraint (constant volume) has an effect
on the true strain. Since there is an extension
in the direction of stress, there will be a
reduction in area,

thus with the same load the stress increases
accordingly.
( ) ( ) 1 1
0
0
0
+ = + = = = e e
A
P
A
A
A
P
A
P
Eng
o o
1
0
0
+ = = e
L
L
A
A
Von Mises Yield Criterion
Richard von Mises (1883-1953)
Austrian mathematician and
engineer
Professor at Strassbourg, Dresden
and finally Berlin
Was a test pilot and designed and
built an airplane in 1915
Escaped Germany for Turkey in 1938 (He was Jewish)
and finally in the USA
Brother of Ludwig von Mises, a very prominent and
unconventional economist

Von Mises Yielding Criteria
Empirically the state of the hydrostatic stress has no
effect on yielding
Found that experimentally pressure did not affect yield
behavior
It was suggested by Von Mises (1913) that yield will occur
when the following (2nd invariant of the stress deviator)
exceeded a certain level, k
2



where o
1
, o
2
, and o
3
are the principle stresses

( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 2
6
1
k J = + + = o o o o o o
Von Mises Yield Criterion
Let us go through a little exercise
Apply uniaxial tension to an isotropic material
The yield stress is observed to be o
0
then by
definition
Then

Substituting into the expression for J
2


Or for arbitrary orientation

0
3 2 0 1
= = = o o o o
k 3
0
= o
( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1 0
2
1
o o o o o o o + + =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | |
2
1
2 2 2
2 2 2
0
6
2
1
xz yz xy x z z y y x
t t t o o o o o o o + + + + + =
Von Mises Yield Criterion
Thus we see that the yield condition is when
the root mean square of the average
differences of the principle stresses is above
the uniaxial yield stress
Isotropic materials
This was not justified, but later it was shown
that the von Mises stress corresponds to the
distortion energy.
Von Mises Yield Criterion
Let us look at pure shear

From the von Mises criterion
in pure shear only

and


which says that the yield stress in shear is
significantly less than that in pure tension


0
2 3 1
= = = o t o o
k =
1
o
0 0
58 . 0
3
1
o o ~ = k
Tresca Stress
Another proposal is that yield occurs when the
maximum shear stress equals the value of the shear
stress in uniaxial tension


where o
1
and o
3
are the largest and smallest principle stresses
It turns out experimentally that the
distortion energy consideration and
therefore the von Mises criterion
agree best with experimental results

2 2
0
0
3 1
max
o
t
o o
t = =

=
If you are inside the ellipse, youre safe
Outside and you yield
More von Mises
What we have seen so far has been related to
isotropic materials
Small grained macroscopic articles
In nanoscale, this is not always the case
Seldom the case
The solution for the von Mises criterion for
anisotropic materials is much more
demanding
More von Mises
For a material with orthotropic symmetry
Orthorhombic crystals and many engineering
materials

For the principal axes


Where the coefficients are constants defining the
degree of anisotropy
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
= + + + + +
xy zx yz z x x z z y
N M L H G F t t t o o o o o o
( ) ( ) ( ) 1
2
3 1
2
1 3
2
3 2
= + + o o o o o o H G F
More von Mises
If we define that S
x
is the yield stress in the x
direction and generalize, we can evaluate the
constants by
2 2 2
1 1 1
z y x
S
G F
S
F H
S
H G = + = + = +
More von Mises
You will recall that the presence of a hydrostatic
stress does not contribute to yield
There is elastic deformation related to bulk modulus, but
take the pressure off and all snaps back
Therefore we define a tube for the yield surface that goes
at a 45 degree angle from the origin
Plastic Stress Strain Relationships
Ideal Plastic Solid
Levy-Mises Equations
The assumption is that the elastic component is very small and
negligible once plastic flow begins
Not always a good assumption!
It is recognized that unlike elastic deformation where the
relationship between the deformation and the load is
constant (linear), in plastic deformation things are
changing as we go along
We need to introduce a new parameter for this relationship that
can be called a plastic modulus, similar to Youngs modulus but it is
not constant
The instantaneous value is used in stress strain relationship and
therefore the relationship must be expressed as a derivative
Levy-Mises Equations
( )
( )
( )
yz yz
xz xz
xy xy
x y z z
z x y y
z y x x
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
d
t
o
c
c
t
o
c
c
t
o
c
c
o o o
o
c
c
o o o
o
c
c
o o o
o
c
c
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
1
2
1
2
1
=
=
=
(

+ =
(

+ =
(

+ =
Where is the instantaneous

plastic modulus

The total plastic strain requires an
Integration over the whole deformation
o
c d
Note how this is similar to the elastic
stress-strain relationships but with
Poissons ratio equal to

Elastic-Plastic
An important but more difficult regime is the
case where the elastic strain is not negligible
as compared to the plastic strain
Often the case with many real materials
Many relatively brittle materials that do yield
High strength steels, etc.
Prandtl-Reuss Equations
Sums the contributions from equations we already
know
P
ij
E
ij ij
d d d c c c + =
Elastic-Plastic
From the Elastic Strain


From the Plastic Strain


Therefore
3
2 1 1
kk
ij
E
ij
d
E
d
E
d
o v
o
v
c

+
+
=
ij
P
ij
d
d o
o
c
c
2
3
=
ij
kk
ij ij
d d
E
d
E
d o
o
c o v
o
v
c
2
3
3
2 1 1
+

+
+
=
Physics of Yielding
How does something yield
We have exhaustively (but not completely) addressed the
macroscopic yielding observations, now how does a
material yield and what does it mean for us in the nano
world
Perfect lattice yielding
How much energy would it take to move translate a plane in a
perfect crystal?
Pure shear
Yield
We can approximate the force as being a
sinusoidal
In fact it is slightly different



Assuming a sine wave
b
x t
t t
2
sin
max
=
Yield
For these small displacements, Hookes law
should apply, therefore

Equating this to the previous, we get for small
displacements









a
x
G G = = t
b
x t
t t
2
max
~
t t
t
2 2
max
G
a
b G
~ =
Yield
More realistic estimates of this theoretical strength
are slightly less, but the least is ~G/30
Actual measurements are typically 0.1 to 1% of this value
Being off by 2 to 3 orders of magnitude is a good indication
something else is happening
So, whats happening?


Dislocations
What can possibly be responsible for the fact
that metals deform at stress levels far below
the calculated strength
Later experiments with very pure metals showed
that plastic flow could start at levels as low as
10
-9
G
However experiments with whiskers (perfect and
very small crystals) sometimes approached the
theoretical limit
Slip Lines in Deformed Metal
Visible in optical microscopes
Observed as early as 1883






This led to the conclusion that metals deform along
slip bands
Although the crystalline nature of metals was not yet well
established
Volterra Dislocations (1907)
Dislocations in a continuous media






Elastic stress and strains were calculated for these
configurations
Dislocations
There were a number defects that were
proposed to account for the deformation and
the slip bands
In 1934 the concept of the edge dislocation
was introduced and shown (Volterra Strains)
to be able to account for everything
Dislocations
Edge dislocation in a simple cubic crystal
Extra half plane
Dislocation Core
Edge Dislocation
Screw Dislocation
Screw Dislocation

Dislocations
Visible in the electron microscope






Mixed dislocation
Dislocations
Dislocations in a close packed plane





In other structures, the dislocation is difficult to
visualize
When I was in graduate school, they were still arguing what
a dislocation looked like in Silicon
Bubble raft
Dislocations
Burgers Vector
Burgers Circuit
Dislocations
Edge dislocations
Burgers vector is perpendicular to the dislocation
line
Previous slide
Screw Dislocations
Burgers vector is parallel to the dislocation line

Dislocations
Mixed dislocation
The Burgers vector is constant as the dislocation
line squirms through the crystal
Changes from edge to screw and mixed, but b never
changes
Dislocations
The dislocation cannot end in the crystal,
except upon itself
Must extend to the end of a crystal or to form a
loop