Communication Networks

By Vaishali Kulkarni

Topics to be covered Introduction Telegraph networks and message switching Telephone networks and circuit switching Computer networks and packet switching Cell switching Essential elements of a network architecture Key factors in communication network evolution

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What is communication network?

A communication network, in its simplest form, is a set of equipment and facilities that provides a service: the transfer of information between users located at various geographical points. Eg. telephone network, computer networks, television broadcast networks, cellular networks, and the internet. The ability of modern communication networks to transfer communication at extremely high speeds allows users to gather information in large volumes nearly instantaneously and, with the aid of computers, to almost immediately exercise action at a distance.
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Basic Types of Topologies

The arrangement or mapping of the elements of a network gives rise to certain basic topologies which may then be combined to form more complex topologies (hybrid topologies). The most common of these basic types of topologies are

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Evolution of network architecture

A communication service involves the transfer of information. Different services differ in the details of how and in what form information is transferred. We use three different example networks to show how the details of the service influence the design of the network. The three example networks are: telegraph networks, telephone networks, and computer networks.

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Telegraph networks and message switching

In 1837 Samuel B Morse demonstrated a practical telegraph that provided the basis for telegram service, the transmission of text messages over long distances. The text was encoded into sequences of dots and dashes. Each dot or dash was transmitted using a short and long pulses of electric current over a copper wire. Thus telegraphy made use of digital transmission systems. Eventually, networks of telegraph stations were established, covering entire continents. contd.
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 At the telegraph stations, the operator would make a routing decision based on the destination address. The operator would store the message until the desired communication line became available and then would forward the message to the next appropriate station. This store and forward process would be repeated at each intermediate station until the message arrived at the destination station. Message switching is used to describe this approach to operating a network.

Contd

Addressing, routing, and forwarding are essential elements of modern computer networks. Initially, the transmission rate was limited to the rate at which a single operator could enter a sequence of symbols. (typically 20 bits/second)
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 In an attempt to increase the transmission rate, multiplexing, that is, combining the symbols from several operators onto the same transmission line came into use. E.g. Baudot system which used characters, group of five binary symbols, to represent each letter in the alphabet. The baudot multiplexing system could interleave characters from several telegraph operators into a single transmission line.

This system eventually led to the modern practice of representing alphanumeric characters by groups of binary digits as in the ASCII code.
This also led to the development of the teletype terminal, which provided a keyboard for entering character information, and could be used to transmit and receive digital information.
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Teletype machines

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 Another approach to multiplexing involves modulation, which uses sinusoidal signals to carry multiple telegraphy signals.
Each of the binary symbol could be transmitted by sending a sinusoidal signal of a given frequency for a given period of time, say frequency f0 to transmit 0, f1 to transmit 1. Multiple sequences of binary symbols could be transmitted simultaneously by using multiple pairs of frequencies for the various telegraphy signals.

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Telegraph network from a service/architecture viewpoint

Foundation is a digital transmission system. A framing method is required for indicating the beginning and end of messages and for taking the sequence of dots /dashes or zeros/ones and grouping them into characters, and in turn, meaningful messages. A system for specifying the destination address of messages is needed. A routing procedure determines the path that a message follows across a network of telegraph stations interconnected by digital transmission lines.

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Telephone networks and circuit switching

In 1876 Bell developed a device that could transmit the entire voice signal and could form the basis for voice communication, which we now know as the telephone. The modern telephone network was developed to provide basic telephone service, which involves the two way, real time transmission of voice signals across a network. Connectivity in the original telephone system was provided by analog transmission system.
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Hierarchial telephone network structure

Toll Tandem Tandem

central office subscriber access lines (twisted pair)

central office

central office

central office

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Phases of a telephone connection

Connection set-up Information transfer Connection release

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Circuit switching
Telephone networks are connection oriented. The transfer mode of a network that involves setting up a dedicated end-to- end connection is called circuit switching.

In circuit switching routing decision is made when the path is set up in switching and transmission equipment across the network.
After a call has been set up, information flows continuously across each switch and transmission line along the path.
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Transition to digital transmission

In these systems an analog voice signal is converted into a binary stream of 64kilobits/sec(kbps) and the resultant digital signal is carried in a digital transmission system that interconnects two telephone offices. The analog switches were then replaced by digital switches. In 1960s and 1970s computer based connection control was introduced for setting up of connections in a switch.

This led to the introduction of a separate signaling network to carry messages between the computers that controlled these switches.
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Overview of architecture of telephone network

Transmission systems for the transfer of voice signals. (analog or digital)

Telephone switches to transfer a signal from an incoming transmission line to an output transmission line.
A telephone numbering system to identify telephone users or stations. User to network signaling system.

System inside the network for routing decision.

Network signaling system
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Packet switching Terminal oriented networks

. C . . (a)
T T
.

C = computer T = terminal

(b)

Modem pool

Telephone network

Terminal-oriented networks: (a) time-shared computers and cables for input devices. (b) dial-in
T
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 A number of terminals share a host computer. Each terminal, initially a teletype printer and later a video terminal, is connected by a set of wires to the computer. By exchanging messages with the host computer, the terminal could input instructions and obtain results from the computer. Modem devices for transmitting digital information were introduced so that terminals could access the host computer through the telephone network. Eventually terminal-oriented networks were developed to provide the message transfer service that enabled host computers to be shared.
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 Medium access control methods were developed to allow a number of terminals at different locations communicate with a central computer using a shared communication line.
Poll to terminal C T T T Response from terminals T

Sharing a multidrop line

This system uses a master/slave polling arrangement whereby the central computer sends a poll message to a specific terminal on the outgoing line. All terminals listen to the outgoing line, but only the terminal that is polled replies by sending any information that it has ready for transmission on the incoming line.
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 Statistical multiplexers/concentrators provide another means for sharing a communication line among terminals. Messages from a terminal are encapsulated inside a frame that consists of a header in addition to the user message. The header provides an address that identifies the terminal.

The communication line transmits a sequence of binary digits, so a framing method is required to delineate the beginning and end of each frame.
CRC Host Address
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Information

Address
. .

T T T

Information

CRC

Contd

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Contd

The messages from the various terminals are buffered by the multiplexer, ordered into a queue, and transmitted one at a time over a communication line to the central computer. The central computer sorts out the messages from each terminal, carries out the necessary processing, and returns the result inside a frame.

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Typical terminal-oriented network

Host

Bombay Pune

Delhi

Hyderabad

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Architecture of terminal-oriented networks

A digital transmission system to transfer binary information. Framing method. Medium access control to coordinate the transmissions of information from terminals into the shared communication line.

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Computer-to-computer networks
These networks are designed to provide packet transfer service, where a packet is a variable-length block of information upto some specified maximum size. User messages that do not fit inside a single packet are segmented and transmitted using multiple packets.

Packets are transferred from packet switch to packet switch until they are delivered to the destination.
The messages are then recovered from individual packets or reassembled once the component packets have been received at the destination.
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The ARPANET
Developed in 1960s Packet switching across a WAN initially. Packet switches were implemented by dedicated minicomputers. Communication lines were leased from public carriers. Initially had a speed of 56 kbps. Connectionless service.
Contd
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Contd

Each packet switch maintained a routing table. Packets were encapsulated in frames. Each packet switching node implemented a distributed routing algorithm. Each packet switch contained a limited amount of buffering.

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 The original ARPANET design.

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 Growth of the ARPANET (a) December 1969. (b) July 1970. (c) March 1971. (d) April 1972. (e) September 1972.

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ARPANET

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There are three types of components: Hosts, Communications Processors, and Terminals.

The fundamental Communications Processor is the Interface Message Processor (IMP). This were initially attached locally to Host computers by a parallel interface.
In a 1970 improvement, the parallel interface was replaced by a serial one,and Hosts could be attached to IMPs by communications lines (via modems). In a further 1971 improvement, a terminal-handling module could be incorporated into the IMP; this made it a Terminal Interface Processor. Although much of the early interest centred round the communications network, the fundamental purpose was to provide Host services. For this reason a set of protocols was defined in the late 60s
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ARPANET architecture
High speed (56 kbps) digital transmission lines. Packets are transferred inside frames that contain destination address as well as check bits. Routing tables at the packet switches are calculated dynamically in response to changes in the in network traffic and topology. Messages segmented into packets at the ingress to the network and reassembled at the egress of the network. End-toend congestion control mechanisms are used.

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Contd

Flow control methods between host computers to prevent buffer overflow. Applications that rely on the transfer of messages between computers were developed.

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Local Area Networks

Two broadcast networks (a) Bus (b) Ring

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LAN architecture
A LAN provides message transfer service between computers and other devices that are attached to the LAN. A high speed (typically 10 megabits/sec) digital transmission system that may support broadcast transmissions. An addressing structure that provides each station with a unique address.

A frame structure to delineate individual transmissions, and a medium access control procedure to control transmissions into the shared broadcast medium.
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Ethernet
Architecture of the original Ethernet.

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The internet
The internet protocol (IP) provides datagram service, namely, the transfer of packets of information across multiple, possibly dissimilar networks.

IP made it possible to transfer information in the form of packets across many, dissimilar networks. The TCP/IP protocols that emerged in the late 1970s form the basis for todays Internet.
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Architecture of the Internet

Overview of the Internet.

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Internet is a global information system that

Is logically linked together by a global unique address space based on the Internet protocol (IP). Is able to support communications using the Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) suite. Provides, uses, or makes accessible, either publicly or privately, high level services layered on the communications and related infrastructure.

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Essential elements of a network architecture

Digital transmission lines.

Exchange of frames of information.

Medium access control. Addresses to identify points of attachment. Routing tables for exchange of packets. Dynamic calculation of routing tables at the packet switches.
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 Congestion control mechanisms. Internetworking provides connectivity across multiple, possibly dissimilar, networks by using gateways or routers. Segmentation and reassembly of messages into packets at the ingress to and egress from the network. End to end recovery mechanisms to ensure reliable transfer across a network. A multiplicity of applications that build on the transfer of messages between computers.
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