Dynamic Soil Properties

Part - I
Lecture-21
1
There are several types of geotechnical engineering problems associated
with dynamic loading, examples include:

wave propagation
machine vibrations
seismic loading
liquefaction and cyclic transient loading

The mechanical properties associated with dynamic loading are termed
dynamic soil properties and are listed below.

Density () : mass per unit volume
shear wave velocity (V
s
): At ground surface, most energy arrives in the
form of vertically propagating shear waves. Velocity of these waves in
soil is measured from field/laboratory studies.
Shear modulus (G): ratio of shear stress to shear strain
Damping ratio (D): ratio of actual damping coefficient to the critical
damping coefficient.
Poissons ratio (n): ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain
Important Dynamic Properties of Soils
2
Measurement of Dynamic Properties of Soils
Dynamic properties of soils can be measured from in-situ as well as
laboratory tests.
The Field or in-situ tests have the advantage that the state of stress is
inherently included in the procedure. However, laboratory tests need to
confine and consolidate the soil sample back to the state of stress to
replicate field conditions. Also getting undisturbed samples for loose
soils is almost impossible and the in-situ structure of the soil gets
disturbed in lab tests. Also there are sample size effects in lab tests.
Laboratory tests are particularly useful when the responses under
controlled conditions are needed, creating which is not possible in field.
Also to study the influence of different parameters on the response, lab
tests are conducted.
3
Dynamic Properties of Soils: v
s

Shear wave velocity (V
s
) is the most commonly used
parameter used in soil characterization. It is used to
calculate several other parameters like density and shear
modulus in the elastic range of soil behavior.
The importance in its utility is that the particle of motion
travels perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation
and we are able to measure the shear properties of the soil
skeleton and not the fluids that cannot take shear.
4
Dynamic Properties of Soils: G
Shear Modulus (G) is a calculated parameter based on the V
s
using the
simple elastic relationship
G
max
= V
s
2

The mass density is often estimated or measured by a nearby subsurface
sampling or using correlations.
Advanced correlations to estimate the value of the dynamic shear
modulus are available based on the standard penetration test, Atterberg
Limits (plasticity index) and grain size distributions. The shear modulus is
used to perform more advanced soil modeling, and dynamic response of
the soil-structure interactions.
Shear modulus at low strain levels as measured by geophysical
techniques will provide the elastic parameter for machine foundation
analysis or earthquake engineering.
G can be used as a varying parameter with respect to strain, making the
soil response represent the real modulus degradation in soil behavior.
This parameter is used in defining the stiffness matrices for finite
element analysis of earth structures and foundation soils.
5
Dynamic Properties of Soils: D
Damping Ratio (D) is used in several dynamic analysis procedures to provide
a realistic motion attenuation. This ratio is based on the material damping
properties.
The damping ratio vs. shear strain relationships for cohesionless and
cohesive soils are provided by many researchers.
Since damping ratio is also shear strain dependent, it is required to have
several values with strain. Dynamic analysis results are also influenced by
the damping ratio. The effects of soil-structure interaction also influence the
damping of the system making it an area where recent research has focused.
The utility of this parameter is based on the ability of the system to absorb
dynamic energy and how this will affect the duration and modes of
vibration.
6
Dynamic Properties of Soils: v
Poissons Ratio (v) is a fundamental parameter that is difficult to measure and it is
usually estimated in engineering calculations.
The ratio of horizontal to vertical strain is required to relate moduli and strains in a
solid body. A suggested range of values for Poisson's ratio for soils is from 0.2 to 0.5,
less common values may be as low as 0.1 for loess deposits.
This ratio can be calculated [v = E/(2G-1)] based on laboratory tests at low strains if G
and E are obtained from torsional and longitudinal vibration respectively.
7
Important Field tests for measuring dynamic
properties of soils
Low strain tests
Seismic Reflection Test
Seismic Refraction Test
Suspension Logging Test
Steady-State-Vibration Test
Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves (SASW) Test
Cross-Hole Test
Down-/Up-hole Test
High strain tests
Seismic Cone Penetration Test
Standard Penetration Test
Dilatometer Test
Pressuremeter Test
8
Important Laboratory tests for measuring dynamic
properties of soils
Element Tests
Resonant Column Test
Ultrasonic Pulse Test
Piezoelectric Bender Element Test
Cyclic Triaxial Test
Cyclic Simple Shear Test
Cyclic Torsion Test

Model Tests
Shake Table Test
Centrifuge Test
9
Field Tests: Low Strain Test
(a) Vertical Impact (b) Shallow Explosive,
(c) Horizontal Impact (d) Frequency-Controlled Surface Waves.
A source produces a pulse of waves, whose times of arrival are
measured by receivers. The commonly used sources are hammer blow
and explosive charges.
10
Field Tests: Low Strain Test
Consideration of ground water table is very important for proper
interpretation of results from these tests.
P-waves travel through ground water and soft saturated soils at almost same
velocity, hence making the detection of ground water very difficult
Failure to consider ground water effects results in overestimation of soil
stiffness.
If the impulse wave generated is S wave, this problem is solved because, S
waves can not travel through fluids and the propagation of S waves below
GWT is only through soil skeleton, thus making proper estimation of soil
properties possible.
11
Field Tests: Low Strain Test
Vertical hammer blows and explosive charges produce waves rich in p-
wave content. Shear waves are produced by horizontal impact.
The resolution of S-waves could be improved by using reverse polarity.
This can be achieved by striking a beam tightly pressed against the
ground surface in opposite directions and measuring the amplitudes.
Since the polarity of p-waves is not reversed, subtracting the reverse
record from the original will diminish the p-wave amplitude and
enhance the S-wave amplitude.
Presence of ground water table may sometimes give inaccurate
results if p-wave velocity is considered. This can be avoided by using S-
waves which can not pass through water.
12
Field Tests: Seismic Reflection Test
An impulse wave (rich in P-waves) is produced at the source S
The arrival time of P-wave is measured at receiver
The impulse produces stress waves that radiate away from the source in all
directions
Two waves are received at the receiver R
1. Direct wave, which travels in direct path from S to R
2. The other wave travels downward and reflects back after striking the
interface of two layers

13
Field Tests: Seismic Reflection Test
2i
S
R
H
x
v
p1

Wavefront
v
p2

14
Field Tests: Seismic Reflection Test
2i
S
R
H
x
v
p1
Wavefront
v
p2
2i
S
R
H
x
v
p1
Wavefront
v
p2
Time taken for direct wave to reach the receiver = t
d
Time taken for reflected wave to reach the receiver
= t
r
t
d
= x/v
p1
1
2 2
1
2
2
1
4 2
2
velocity
distance
2
tan
p p
r
v
x H
v
x
H
t
H
x
i
+
=
|
.
|

\
|
+
= =
=

15
Seismic Reflection
1/v
p1

2H/v
p1

x
t
Direct wave
reflected
wave
As the distance increases, the difference between arrival times of direct wave and
reflected wave reduces. By measuring x and t
d
, p-wave velocity in upper layer (v
p1
) can
be determined
16
Seismic Reflection
By measuring x and t
r
and knowing v
p1
from direct wave calculations, thickness of
upper layer (H) can be determined.
If the layering is not horizontal, multiple measurements with receivers on either side
of the source are to be made to determine the layer thickness at one point and layer
inclination.
2 2
1
2
1
2 2
2
1
4
x v t H
v
x H
t
p r
p
r
=
+
=
17
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
The seismic refraction method is similar to the reflection method in that the same
instruments and shock wave sources are used and the travel time of p or s waves is
measured at receivers placed along the ground surface at different distances from the
source.
The advantage of refraction test over reflection test is that in refraction test, arrival time of
first wave is recorded, regardless of its path.
18
Seismic Refraction
Vertical Geophones
Source
(Plate)
Rock: V
p2
Soil: V
p1
oscilloscope
x1
x2
x3
x4
t1
t2
t3
t4
z
R
Determine depth
to rock layer, z
R
19
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
Snells law:
The directions of all waves generated are related to the direction of
incident wave.
When the angle of incidence is i
c
, the refracted wave will be parallel to
the interface. This angle i
c
is called critical angle of incidence
i
c
= v
1
/v
2
20
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
x
S
x
c

v
1

v
2

Head waves
Direct waves
All receivers placed at distances greater than x
c
receive head waves before direct
waves.
x
c
is the distance at which the angle of incidence of wavefront at the interface is i
c
.
21
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
22
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
i
c

S
R
H
x
n

v
1

v
2

i
c

x
n
> x
c

Determine H in terms of v
1
, v
2
and x
c

23
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
i
c

S
R
x
n

v
1

v
2

i
c

For a receiver placed at x
n
= x
c
,
,
t
hn
= x
c
/v
1

1 2
1 2
2 v v
v v x
H
c
+

=
c
i
H
cos
x
n
2H tan i
c

2
2
2
1 2
1 2 1
1 1
2
2
1
sin
cos
tan 2
cos
v v
H
v
x
t
v
v
i
i v
H
v
i H x
i v
H
t
n
hn
c
c
c n
c
hn
+ =
=
+

+ =
c
i
H
cos
24
Seismic Refraction: Travel time-distance diagram
0.000
0.005
0.010
0.015
0.020
T
r
a
v
e
l

T
i
m
e

(
s
e
c
o
n
d
s
)
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance From Source (meters)
Horizontal Soil Layer over Rock
V
p1
= 1350
m/s
1
V
p2
= 4880
m/s
1
z
x
2

V V
V V
c
c p2 p1
p2 p1
=

+
Depth to Rock:
z
c
= 5.65 m
x
c
= 15.0 m
x values
t

v
a
l
u
e
s

25
Field Tests: Seismic Refraction Test
For multiple horizontal layers, travel time-distance diagram will have more than
one break in slope.
The distances corresponding to break in slope and the slopes are used to
determine the thickness of layers and wave velocities in different layers.
For the case of multiple layers,

=
+
+ +
+
+

+
+

=
1
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
2 2
1
1
1
2
k
j
k k
j k k j k k
j
j
k k
k k ck
k
v v
v v v v v v
v
H
v v
v v x
H
26
Seismic Refraction Test: Limitations
The travel time distance curves are not exactly straight lines for real
situations of soil layers, where velocity of wave is not constant within a
layer, as assumed.
Insufficient thickness of some layers may cause difficulties in detecting
them, causing blind zones
When velocity of top layer is high, refraction is not suitable.
27
Inclined layers: Reverse profiling
When the boundaries between layers are not horizontal, refraction study is
done in two directions to get the thickness of layers and the inclinations.
This is called Reverse Profiling
28
29
Kramer, S.L. (1996) Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering, Prentice Hall.
Braja M. Das, Ramana G.V. (2010) Principles of soil dynamics, C L Engineering.
Prakash, S. (1981) Soil Dynamics, McGraw-Hill.
Kearey P., Brooks, M. Hill I. (2002) An Introduction to Geophysical Exploration,
Wiley-Blackwell.
Burger H.R, Sheehan A.F., Jones, C.H. (2006)Introduction to Applied Geophysics:
Exploring the Shallow Subsurface, W. W. Norton & Company.
http://civil.iisc.ernet.in/~madhavi/ce202/lecture3.pdf



References