Refresher course

IN
Experimental physics
INDAIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE
Course Director: Dr R. Srinivasan
Neelam Kapoor
R. K. Talreja College
Mumbai University
AC Circuits and Resonance
Alternating Current Circuits
e is the angular frequency (angular speed) [radians per second].
Sometimes instead of e we use the frequency f [cycles per
second]
Frequency f [cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)] e = 2t f
V = V
P
sin (et - |
v
)
I = I
P
sin (et - |
I
)
An AC circuit is one in which the driving voltage and
hence the current are sinusoidal in time.
t
|
v
2t
V(t)
et
V
p
-V
p
Resistors in AC Circuits
E
R
~
EMF (and also voltage across resistor):
V = V
P
sin (et)
Hence by Ohms law, I=V/R:
I = (V
P
/R) sin(et) = I
P
sin(et)
(with I
P
=V
P
/R)
V and I
In-phase
V
et
t
I
2t
This looks like I
P
=V
P
/R for a resistor
(except for the phase change).
So we call X
c
= 1/(eC)
the Capacitive Reactance
Capacitors in AC Circuits
E
~
C
Start from: q = C V [V=V
p
sin(et)]
Take derivative: dq/dt = C dV/dt
So I = C dV/dt = C V
P
e cos (et)
I = C e V
P
sin (et + t/2)
The reactance is sort of like resistance in
that I
P
=V
P
/X
c
. Also, the current leads
the voltage by 90
o
(phase difference).
V
et t
2t
I
V and I out of phase by 90. I leads V by 90.
Again this looks like I
P
=V
P
/R for a
resistor (except for the phase change).

So we call X
L
= e L
the Inductive Reactance
Inductors in AC Circuits
L
V = V
P
sin (et)
Loop law: V +V
L
= 0 where V
L
= -L dI/dt
Hence: dI/dt = (V
P
/L) sin(et).
Integrate: I = - (V
P
/ Le) cos (et)
or I = [V
P
/(eL)] sin (et - t/2)
~
Here the current lags the voltage by 90
o
.
V
et
t
2t
I
V and I out of phase by 90. I lags V by 90.
Phasor diagram
The projection of OP on the vertical axis (Oy) is ON,
represents the instantaneous value.
A
o
is the peak value of the quantity.
t
0
T
T
2
1
T 2
T
2
3

N
O
P
A
o

t A A
o
e sin =
y y
A phasor is an arrow whose length represents the amplitude of
an AC voltage or current.
The phasor rotates counterclockwise about the origin with the
angular frequency of the AC quantity.
Phasor diagrams are useful in solving complex AC circuits.
The y component is the actual voltage or current.
Phasor Diagrams
V
p
I
p
e t
Resistor
A phasor is an arrow whose length represents the amplitude of
an AC voltage or current.
The phasor rotates counterclockwise about the origin with the
angular frequency of the AC quantity.
Phasor diagrams are useful in solving complex AC circuits.
The y component is the actual voltage or current.
Phasor Diagrams
V
p
I
p
e t
V
p
I
p
e t
Resistor Capacitor
A phasor is an arrow whose length represents the amplitude of
an AC voltage or current.
The phasor rotates counterclockwise about the origin with the
angular frequency of the AC quantity.
Phasor diagrams are useful in solving complex AC circuits.
The y component is the actual voltage or current.
Phasor Diagrams
V
p
I
p
e t
V
p
I
p
e t
V
p
I
p
e t
Resistor Capacitor Inductor
A phasor is an arrow whose length represents the amplitude of
an AC voltage or current.
The phasor rotates counterclockwise about the origin with the
angular frequency of the AC quantity.
Phasor diagrams are useful in solving complex AC circuits.
The y component is the actual voltage or current.
i) RC in series circuit
R
I
R
V
V
C
V
C
|

C
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
voltage supply
angle phase :
= V
|
In the circuit diagram :
V
R
and V
C
represent the instantaneous voltage
across the resistor and the capacitor.
In the phasor diagram :
V
R
and V
C
represent the peak voltage across the
resistor and the capacitor.
i) RC in series circuit
|

C
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2
1
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
+ =
C
R I V
X R I V
X R I V
X R I V
X I R I V
X I R I V
V V V
C
C rms rms
C o o
L o o o
L o o o
Co Ro o
e
2 by side both ...divide

|

C
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
voltage supply
angle phase :
= V
|
The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and C is
equal to the vector sum of V
R
and V
C
as shown in
the phasor diagram.
2
C
2
R
2
V V V + =
( ) ( )
2
C
2
2
IX IR V + =
( )
2
C
2 2 2
X R I V + =
C
1
X
C
=
2 2
2
C
1
R I V + =
and
C C
IX V =
IR V
R
=
Argand diagram as follows
O
A
B
V
R
= IR
V
u
|

C
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
i) RC in series circuit
|

C
X
R
Z
The impedance in RC
circuit,
2 2
2
2 2
2
1
1
C
R Z
I
C
R I
I
V
Z
rms
rms
e
e
+ =
+
= =
R
C
V
V
= | tan
IR
IX
C
= | tan
R
X
C
= | tan
CR
1
= | tan
From the phasor diagrams,
or
I leads V by
Impedance diagram
f
0
fCR CR
IX
IR
Vc
V
C
R
t e 2 = = =
Vc
V
R
Thus if this ratio is measured at various frequencies & plotted
as a function of frequency then slop =2t CR
Thus C=slop/ 2tR
ii) RL in series circuit
R
I
R
V
V
L
L
V
|

L
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
voltage supply
angle phase :
= V
|
The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and L is
equal to the vector sum of V
R
and V
L
as shown in
the phasor diagram.
2
L
2
R
2
V V V + =
( ) ( )
2
L
2
2
IX IR V + =
( )
2
L
2 2 2
X R I V + =
L X
L
=
2 2 2
L R I V + =
and
|

L
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
ii) RL in series circuit
|

L
X
Z
R
Impedance diagram
The impedance in RC
circuit,
From the phasor diagrams,
2 2 2
2 2 2
L R Z
I
L R I
I
V
Z
rms
rms
e
e
+ =
+
= =
R
L
V
V
= | tan
IR
IX
L
= | tan
R
X
L
= | tan
R
L
= | tan
or
V leads I by
If a resistance R is in Series with a coil of self
resistance R
L
and Inductance L.
Z
coil
(e) = R
L
+jeL
The magnitude of the impedance is =(R
L

2
+e
2
L
2
)
1/2
the rms voltage across R

and across the coil will be
in the ratio
V
coil
/V
R
= |Z
coil
|/R = (R
L
2
+e
2
L
2
)
1/2
/R

(V
coil
/V
R
)
2
= (R
L
2
+(2t f)
2
L
2
) /R
2


If we measure V
coil
/V
R
at different frequencies, a
plot of (V
coil
/V
R
)
2
vs. f
2
will give a straight line, the
slope of which is given by (2tL/ R)
2
. From the slope
one can determine L knowing R.


Since V
app
2
= V
R
2
+ V
coil
2
+ 2V
R
V
coil
cos |
Thus cos | & hence tan | can be calculated.

phase angle | given by

f
R
L
R
L
L L
t
|
2
tan = =
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
slope 0.00409 s
t
a
n
(
|
)
Frequency in Hz
A plot of tan| against the
frequency f can be fitted to
a straight line to give the
slop= 2tL/R
L
. Since L has
been measured earlier one
may obtain R
L
, the
resistance of the coil from
such a plot.
The two terminals of the signal generator are
connected to the terminals A and C on the R-L-C box.
Signal generator voltage is adjusted =1V.
The frequency of the signal is varied between 200
and 2000 Hz in steps of 200 Hz and Vcoil, V
R
and
Vapp are measured.
A graph of (V
coil
/V
R
)
2
vs. f
2
is ploted & the slope is
calculated. Since slop= (2pL/ R)
2
. From the slope
one can determine L knowing R.
Then cos | & hence tan | is calculated & a graph of
tan | against the frequency f is ploated which gives
slop= 2tL/R
L
from slop R
L
can be calculated.
0 1 2 3 4
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
slope 0.399 x 10
-6
s
2
(
V
c
o
i
l
/
V
R
)
2
Frequency
2
kHz
2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
slope 0.00409 s
t
a
n
(
|
)
Frequency in Hz
iii) RLC in series circuit
I
V
R
R
V
L
L
V
C
V
C
L L
IX V = IR V
R
=
C C
IX V =
The voltage across the inductor V
L

resistor V
R
and capacitor V
C
are
I
V
R
R
V
L
L
V
C
V
C
iii) RLC in series circuit
|

L
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
C
V
( )
C L
V V
iii) RLC in series circuit
I
V
R
R
V
L
L
V
C
V
C
|

L
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
C
V
( )
C L
V V
The total p.d (supply voltage), V across L, R and C
is equal to the vector sum of V
L
,V
R
and V
C
as
shown in the phasor diagram.
( )
2
C L
2
R
2
V V V V + =
( ) ( )
2
C L
2
2
IX IX IR V + =
( ) | |
2
2 2 2
C L
X X R I V + =
( )
2
C L
2
X X R I V + =
iii) RLC in series circuit
( )
C L
X X
|

L
X
R
Z
C
X
|

L
V
I
R
V
V
Phasor diagram
C
V
( )
C L
V V
Impedance diagram
The impedance in RLC
circuit,
From the phasor diagrams,
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
C L
C L
rms
rms
X X R Z
I
X X R I
I
V
Z
+ =
+
= =
V leads I by
R
C L
V
V V
= | tan
( )
IR
X X I
C L

= | tan
R
X X
C L

= | tan
R
C
L
|
.
|

\
|

=
1
tan|
Resonance in RLC series circuit
Resonance is defined as the phenomenon that occurs when the frequency of
the applied voltage is equal to the frequency of the LRC series circuit.

Z
f X
L

R
f
1
X
C

0
f
Z R X X
L C
, , ,
r
f
Graph of impedance Z, inductive reactance
X
L
, capacitive reactance X
C
and resistance R
with frequency.
The series resonance
circuit is used for
tuning a radio receiver.
At resonance the phase goes to zero (when the circuit becomes
purely resistive, the current and voltage are in phase).
Resonance in RLC circuit
Z
f X
L

R
f
1
X
C

0
f
Z R X X
L C
, , ,
r
f
The graph shows that :
at low frequency, impedance Z
is large because 1/C is large.
at high frequency, impedance Z
is high because L is large.
at resonance, impedance Z is minimum (Z=R)
which is
( )
2
C L
2
X X R Z + =
C L
X X =
0 R Z
2
+ =
min
R Z =
min
LC
f
C f
L f
r
r
r
t
t
t
2
1
2
1
2
=
=
resonant
frequency
and I is maximum
R
V
Z
V
I
rms rms
rms
= =
V
z

= is the voltage across the series combination of L and C.
V
R

= is the voltage across the resistor R

When the inductance and capacitance are in series the total
impedance is Z=Z
L
+Z
C
= R
L
+ jeL -j/eC

This has a minimum value R
L
at the resonance frequency.


( )
( )
( )
R
C
L R
R
X X R
R
Z
V
V
L
C L L
R
Z
2
2
2
2
1
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
+
= =
e
e
LC
f
res
t 2
1
=
Thus plot the graph of V
Z
/V
R
against the frequency f.
The graph will show minimum impedance at a frequency
fmin. Compare this with the value of
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
1
2
3
4
(
V
Z
/
V
R
)
Frequency in kHz
If the coil and capacitance are connected in parallel, the
effective impedance of the combination is
Z = Z
L
Z
C
/ (Z
L
+Z
C
)
(II.4.4.1)
At resonance frequency Z
L
+Z
C
is a minimum. If R
L
were
zero, then Z
L
Z
C
would be independent of frequency while
Z
L
+Z
C
would be zero at the resonance frequency, making the
effective impedance infinite at the resonance frequency.
However RL is non-zero and small for the coil. This makes
the impedance to go through a finite, but maximum, value at
a frequency close to the resonant frequency.
The graph of V
Z
/V
R
shows a sharp maximum at a frequency
f
max.
Verify that f
max
is nearly equal to
LC
f
res
t 2
1
=
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0
5
10
15
20
25
(
V
Z
/
V
R
)
Frequency in kHz
(V
Z
/V
R
) against frequency in kHz for
a parallel resonant circuit
A, B, C, and D are banana terminals. Between A and B
is connected a resistance R of 1 kO, Between B and C is
connected a coil L of inductance 100 mH. Between C
and D is connected a capacitance C of 0.033 f. One
may choose other values depending on the availability.
Depending on the circuit RL /RC or LCR do proper
connections. Take voltage readings at various
frequencies & plot appropriate graph. Do calculations .
PROCEDURE
A
B C
D
1kO 100mH 0.033F
i) RC in series circuit A
B C
D
SG
A
B C
D
SG
A
B C
D
1kO 100mH 0.033F
SG
ii) RL in series circuit
iii) RLC in series circuit
A
B C
D
SG
iv) LC in parallelcircuit
THANK YOU