Oleh:

Dr. Ir. Eko Widianto, MT

Jurusan Teknik Perminyakan
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian dan
Energi
Universitas TRISAKTI

2012
4. Hydrocarbon Source Rock
LECTURE MATERIAL
1. INTRODUCTION

2. ORIGIN OF PETROLEUM AND LEVEL OF PETROLEUM INVESTIGATION

3. PLATE TECTONIC AND PETROLEUM SEDIMENTARY BASIN

4. HYDROCARBON SOURCE ROCK

5. RESERVOIR ROCK

6. HYDROCARBON TRAP AND SEAL

7. HYDROCARBON MIGRATION

8. ESTIMATION OF RESERVES AND RESOURCES

9. PETROLEUM GEOLOGY OF INDONESIA
Figure: Loss of carbon and related petroleum potential in
the sedimentary cycle
Demonstrates the chance that any
single carbon atom in a carbon
dioxide molecule, whether in the
atmosphere or hydrosphere, has
of being taken in by biotic
processes and becoming
petroleum. In statistical figures,
when 50,000,000 carbon dioxide
molecules enter the organic cycle
through biosynthesis, only one of
the carbon atoms will end up in a
petroleum accumulation (Hunt
1972, 1977). This diminution,
outlined below, is due to a variety
of naturally occurring biological,
chemical, and physical processes
acting near or below the earth's
surface.
SOURCE ROCKS BASIC
To evaluate a play or prospect in an undrilled area, we must first ask, "Is a source rock present?" But
this is usually not enough. After determining that a source rock is present, we also need to know its
richness, its quality, and its maturity. This chapter covers all of these topics.

The first factor to be assessed in an exploration play in an area yet to be drilled is whether a source
rock is present. If so, then we ask, "How good is it? Will it generate oil or gas? Has it generated
hydrocarbons already?" To answer these questions, we must know the basics of what constitutes a
source rock, how to classify source rocks, and how to estimate potential. This section provides a
background in these fundamentals.

Types of Source Rocks

Definition of Source Rock
A source rock is a rock that is capable of generating or that has generated movable quantities of
hydrocarbons.

Source rocks can be divided into at least four major categories:
Potential
Effective
Relic effective
Spent
TYPE DEFINITION
Potential source rock Rock which contain organic matter in sufficient
quantity to generate and expel hydrocarbons if
subjected to increase thermal maturation.
Effective source rock Rock which contain organic matter and is presently
generating and/or expelling hydrocarbons to form
commercial accumulations.
Relic effective source rock An effective source rock which has ceased
generating and expelling hydrocarbons due to a
thermal cooling event such as uplift or erosion
before exhausting its organic matter supply.
Spent source rock An active source rock which has exhausted its
ability to generate and expel hydrocarbons either
through lack of sufficient organic matter or due to
reaching an over mature state.
Characterizing Source Rocks
To be a source rock, a rock must have three features:
1. Quantity of Organic matter
2. Quantity capable of yielding moveable hydrocarbon
3. Thermal maturity
The first two components are products of the depositional setting. The third is the
function of the structural and tectonic history of the province.

Determining the source rock potential
The quantity of organic matter is commonly assessed by a measure of the total organic
carbon (TOC) contained in the rock. Quality is measured by determining the types of
kerogen contained in the organic matter. Thermal maturity is most often estimated by
using vitrinite reflectance measurements and data from pyrolysis analysis.
The table below shows the most common methods used to determined the potential of
the source rock.
To determine . Measure
Quantity of source rock Total Organic Carbon (TOC), present in the
source rock
Quality of source rock Proportions of individual kerogen
Prevalence of long-chain hydrocarbons
Thermal maturity of
source rock
Vitrinite reflectance
Pyrolysis T
max
Source rock richness is determined by measuring the TOC present in the rock. The
two most common techniques of analyzing a rock for TOC are Rock-Eval pyrolysis with
TOC and the LECO method. Conventional well logs can also provide information for
evaluating interval richness.

This section first discusses what TOC is and then describes these three techniques and
the information they yield.

Measuring a Rock's Ability to Generate Hydrocarbons

How do we determine if an interval of strata can be categorized as a source rock?
Measuring the total organic carbon (TOC) present in weight percent (wt %) is the
most common method for making this determination. A TOC analysis is a screening
analysis used to evaluate the overall organic richness of a rock unit. TOC serves as a
guideline for assessing the hydrocarbon generating potential of a unit of rock.

Why use TOC
Hydrocarbons are 75-95 wt % carbon by molecular weight (Jarvie, 1991) and average
83 wt %. The amount of organic carbon present in a rock is a determining factor in a
rock's ability to generate hydrocarbons.
Effect of depositional environment
Depositional environment controls the amount of organic carbon contained in a rock.
Source rocks are generally associated with areas where high organic productivity is
combined with:

(1) deposition in poorly oxygenated environments (anoxic to dysaerobic),
(2) upwelling, and
(3) rapid sedimentation (Chinn, 1991). These processes preserve organic matter.

Average TOCs
The table below (from Chinn, 1999) shows average TOC values for different
sedimentary rock types.
ROCK TYPE TOC VALUE, %
Average for all shales 0.8
Average for shale source rocks 2.2
Average for calcareous shale source rocks 1.8
Average for carbonate source rocks 0.7
Average for all source rocks 1.8
The table below gives guidelines for assessing the
richness of source rock intervals
Generation
Potential
Wt % TOC,
Shales
Wt % TOC,
Carbonates
Poor 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.2
Fair 0.5 1.0 0.2 0.5
Good 1.0 2.0 0.5 2.0
Very Good 2.0 5.0 1.0 2.0
Excellent > 5.0 > 2.0
Using Pyrolysis to Estimate Richness

Pyrolysis is the decomposition of organic matter by heating in the absence of oxygen.
Organic geochemists use pyrolysis to measure richness and maturity of potential
source rocks. In a pyrolysis analysis, the organic content is pyrolyzed in the absence of
oxygen, then combusted. The amount of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide released is
measured. The most widely used pyrolysis technique is Rock-Eval.

The diagram below shows the cycle of analysis and the corresponding recording.
In Rock-Eval pyrolysis, a sample is placed in a vessel and is progressively heated to 550C under an
inert atmosphere. During the analysis, the hydrocarbons already present in the sample are
volatized at a moderate temperature. The amount of hydrocarbons are measured and recorded as
a peak known as S1. Next pyrolyzed is the kerogen present in the sample, which generates
hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon-like compounds (recorded as the S2 peak), C02 and water (Tissot
and Welte, 1984). The CO2 generated is recorded as the S3 peak. Residual carbon is also measured
and is recorded as S4.

The table below list the Rock-Eval pyrolysis peaks and explains what they represent.
Peak Is a measurement of . Comment
S1
Mg HC / g rock
The free hydrocarbons present
in the sample before the
analysis
Can be thought of as a residual hydrocarbon
phase. When S1 is large relative to S2, an
alternative source such as migrated
hydrocarbons or contamination should be
suspected
S2
Mg HC / g rock
The volume of hydrocarbons
that formed during thermal
pyrolysis of the sample
Used to estimate the remaining hydrocarbon
generating potential of the sample
S3
Mg CO2 / g rock
The CO2, yield during thermal
breakdown of kerogen
Most prevalent in calcareous source rock
S4
Mg carbon / g
rock
The residual carbon content of
the sample
Residual carbon content of sample has little or
no potential to generate hydrocarbons due to
lack of hydrogen and the chemical structure of
the molecule
Estimating TOC with pyrolysis

The percent TOC is actually a value that is calculated, not measured directly,
using the following formula:

%TOC = [0.082(S1 + S2) + S4]/10


Units are usually given as wt % organic carbon per weight of dry rock
(milligrams hydrocarbon per gram of rock).

Using Conventional Well Logs to Estimate Richness

Conventional well logs are useful for estimating source rock richness both qualitatively
and quantitatively. Well logs allow a qualitative identification of organic-rich
formations and a quantitative analysis of the amount of organic matter. The
advantages of using well logs over cuttings are continuous sampling, more accurate
depth control, and greater vertical resolution (Herron, 1991).

The use of conventional well logs to predict organic richness of a unit of rock requires
calibrating well log intervals to samples measured for TOC using pyrolysis or another
suit able measurement technique. Using the calibrated logs, we can extrapolate TOC
values to un-calibrated logs to estimate source rock richness over large areas.

Note: Consider changes in depositional environment and maturity when applying
these techniques.

Effects of organic matter on well logs
The increasing concentration of organic matter in a rock directly affects its properties
by lowering density, slowing sonic velocity, increasing radioactivity, raising resistivity,
and raising hydrogen and carbon contents. All of these attributes can be measured
using density, sonic, neutron, gamma ray, and resistivity logs. The table below (from
Herron, 1991) summarizes log responses to organic matter.

Log / Property
Response / Value for
Organic Matter (OM)
Comment
Gamma ray (GR) or
Uranium (U)
High High GR caused by U; can
be linear with OM; U not
always present
Density Low (approx. 1gr/cm3) Similar to pore fluids
Neutron High Due to hydrogen in OM
Sonic High transit time Estimates vary from 150
to more than 200 micro
second/ft
Resistivity High May not affect log
response unless
generated hydrocarbons
occupy pores
Pulsed neutron High carbon-oxygen
ratio
Most direct measurement
of carbon; needs
inorganic correction
EVALUATING SOURCE ROCK QUALITY
Kerogen Types

Introduction
Depositional environment is the dominant factor in determining the types of organic
matter found in a rock. Only two types of organic matter are found in rocks: land derived
and aquatic algae derived. Heat and pressure convert organic matter into a substance
called humin and then into kerogen. Time and temperature convert kerogen into
petroleum.

Definition
Geochemists (Durand, 1980; Tissot and Welte, 1984) define kerogen as the fraction of
sedimentary organic constituent of sedimentary rocks that is insoluble in the usual
organic solvents. Kerogens are composed of a variety of organic materials, including
algae, pollen, wood, vitrinite, and structureless material. The types of kerogens present in
a rock largely control the type of hydrocarbons generated in that rock. Different types of
kerogen contain different amounts of hydrogen relative to carbon and oxygen. The
hydrogen content of kerogen is the controlling factor for oil vs. gas yields from the
primary hydrocarbon- generating reactions.

Kerogen quality
The type of kerogen present determines source rock quality. The more oil prone a
kerogen, the higher its quality. Four basic types of kerogen are found in sedimentary
rocks. A single type or a mixture of types may be present in a source rock.
The table below lists and defines these
four basic kerogen types.
Kerogen
Type
Predominant Hydrocarbon
Potential
Amount of
Hydrogen
Typical
Depositional
Environment
I Oil prone Abundant Lacustrine
II Oil and gas prone Moderate Marine
III Gas prone Small Terrestrial
IV Neither (primarily
composed of vitrinite) or
inert material
None Terrestrial (?)
Evaluating Quality Using Rock-Eval HI/OI

Introduction
Obviously, the two main elements of hydrocarbons are hydrogen and carbon.
Therefore, once we know the amount of organic carbon present in a rock, we then
need to know the amount of hydrogen present in order to assess overall source rock
quality. The amount of oxygen and hydrogen present in the kerogen defines the
kerogen as type I, II, or III and if the rock will be oil or gas prone.

Hydrogen index
The hydrogen index (HI) represents the amount of hydrogen relative to the amount
of organic carbon present in a sample. The S curve of a Rock-Eval analysis can help us
determine the total amount of hydrogen in milligrams of hydrogen to grams of
sample according to the following formula:

HI = S2 (mg/g)/%TOC x 100

Oxygen index
The oxygen index (OI) represents the amount of oxygen relative to the amount of
organic carbon present in a sample. The S curve of a Rock-Eval analysis can help us
determine the total amount of oxygen present in a sample according to the following
formula:
OI = S3 (mg/g)/%TOC x 100
Determining kerogen quality

The type of kerogen pre sent in a rock determines its quality. Type I kerogen is the
highest quality; type III is the lowest. Type I has the highest hydrogen content; type III,
the lowest. To determine the kerogen type present in a source rock, plot the hydrogen
and oxygen indices on a modified Van Krevlen diagram (below).

Typical graphic formats used to determine kerogen types from analytical
data: Hl and Ol pyrolysis plot
Using Pyrolysis Gas Chromatography to Assess Quality

What is Py-GC?
Pyrolysis gas chromatography (Py-GC) is anhydrous thermal decomposition of a material that leads to the
conversion of kerogen to hydrocarbon compounds. Py-GC can be conduct ed on whole rock or isolated
kerogen samples to obtain a visual signature or fingerprint of the organic material present.

How to read gas chromatograms
Gas chromatography generally is a qualitative tool. It is not typically used as a quantitative measurement of
hydrocarbon molecules. However, the patterns generated in the chromatograms can help us determine if a
source rock will be oil or gas prone.
The X-axis of a gas chromatogram is retention time, and the Y-axis is the relative quantity of each
compound. Each spike in the chromatogram represents a particular hydrocarbon compound, beginning with
lowest number of carbon atoms in the compound on the left and going to higher chains of carbons to the
right. The height of the spike represents the relative abundance of the compound pyrolized from the
samples kerogen.

Interpreting gas chromatograms
A gas chromatogram is evaluated qualitatively to determine the potential of a rock to generate oil vs. gas.
The table below shows how chromatograms for oil- vs. gas-prone rocks are evaluated.
Chromatograms of oil-prone rock Chromatograms of gas-prone rock
Dominated by long-chain carbon compounds (greater
than C10)
Dominated by short-chain carbon compounds from C1
C4
Contain carbon compounds up to C25 or greater Contain very few carbon compounds above C10
Typical gas chromatogram examples for types I, II, and III kerogen are shown below.
EVALUATING SOURCE ROCK MATURITY
Once the two questions Is a source rock present? and What type of hydrocarbon will it
generate? have been answered to our satisfaction, we must ask, Has it generated
hydrocarbon?. In other words, what is its present-day maturity?

Maturation

Introduction
The chemistry of organic matter contained within a sedimentary rock changes over time,
reflecting its temperature and burial history. This change or maturation is measured and can be
combined with quality and richness data to gauge the amount of hydrocarbon generated by the
organic matter. The present-day maturity level is the product of a number of variables, such as
tectonic setting, burial history and thermal history A number of variables such as paleolatitude,
pressure, fluid flow, rock matrix chemistry, and pore fluid chemistry can affect the thermal
history and thus a rocks rate of maturation.

Transformation rate
The rate at which hydrocarbons are generated from organic matter is called the transformation
rate. Using source rock maturity, we can estimate the transformation rate. Different kerogen
types (1) generate hydrocarbons at different maturity levels and (2) have different
transformation rates. Maturity measurements can be made on several different components of
a rock like vitrinite, kerogen, spores, apatite grains, and biomarkers; each has its own
relationship to the kerogen transformation rate.
Tmax

Introduction
Tmax is the temperature at which the maximum rate of hydrocarbon generation
occurs in a kerogen sample during pyrolysis analysis. The S2 peak represents the rate
of hydrocarbon generation (the area under the curve represents the amount). The
temperature at the time the S2 peak is recorded during pyrolysis is Tmax, given in C.
The diagram below shows output from a pyrolysis analysis and when Tmax is
recorded.
Maturation trends plotted from pyrolysis data. On this well-profile plot of
Tertiary, West Africa core samples, an increase in productivity index (PI) and
Tmax accompanies increased depth of burial

Interpreting Tmax
We can use the general guidelines for maturation levels given below for Rock-Eval
pyrolysis Tmax for types II and III kerogens. Different pyrolysis techniques have
different cutoffs for pyrolysis oil and gas generation zone boundaries. Pyrolysis Tmax
can be significantly different for type I kerogen (Tissot et al., 1987) or kerogen
containing high sulfur concentration and is not a reliable indicator of maturity for
these kerogen types.
Hydrocarbon Generation Zone Rock-Eval Pyrolysis Tmax,
o
C
Immature < 435
Oil (from type II kerogen) 435 455
Oil (from type III kerogen) 435 465
Gas (from type II kerogen) > 455
Gas (from type III kerogen) > 465
Vitrinite Reflectance

Introduction
Vitrinite reflectance is a measure of the percentage of incident light reflected from the surface of vitrinite particles
in a sedimentary rock. It is referred to as %Ro Results are often presented as a mean Ro value based on all vitrinite
particles measured in an individual sample.

Connection between vitrinite and kerogen
The maturation of vitrinite is a kinetic process. The relationship between %Ro and hydrocarbon generation is
dependent on the chemistry of the vitrinite as well as the chemistry of the kerogen.

Oil and gas zone
Oil and gas zone boundaries can be established using vitrinite reflectance data. The boundaries are approximate
and vary according to kerogen type. The figure below shows the approximate boundaries for kerogen types I, II, and
III. Timetemperature relationships and mixing of various sources of organic matter may alter these boundaries.
Recognizing good data
An excellent way to recognize high-quality reflectance data is to plot it in a
histogram. We can have high confidence in the data when a single mode in
the distribution curve is tightly clustered about a mean value. The histogram
below is a good example.

Sample with reworked vitrinite

The bimodal distribution shown in the histogram below represents an indigenous and
a reworked population of vitrinite measured in one sample. The reworked population
would have been eroded from a more mature provenance and deposited with the
indigenous organic matter of this sample.
Hydrogen Index (HI)

Introduction
Gross trends of hydrogen indices (HI) can be used as a maturation indicator. The hydrogen index is calculated
from Rock-Eval data using the following formula:

HI = S2 (mg/g)/%TOC x 100
How to apply HI
Hydrocarbon generation zones can be indicated in the HI data for a uniform source section when HI decreases
with depth. Inconsistencies due to changes in organic facies or the chemistry of the source rock can produce
shifts in the HI data which are not indicative of maturation trends. Therefore, be sure the source is of uniform
character when applying this concept.
The figure below shows a decreasing HI trend for a source rock beginning to generate hydrocarbons at a depth of
approximately 2200 m.
Production Index (PI)

Introduction
Maturity of a homogeneous source section can be accessed from the
production index (PT). PI is calculated from Rock-Eval data:

PI = S1/(S1 + S2)
How to apply PI
PI increases continuously through the oil window up to a value of 0.50. The
following cutoffs can generally be applied.
Production Index Generation Zone
< 0.10 Immature
0.10 0.30 Oil Generation
> 0.30 Gas generation / oil cracking
Relationships Between Maturity and Hydrocarbon Generation

Introduction

Different types of kerogens convert to hydrocarbons at different rates, and they yield different quantities of various
hydrocarbon phases. Therefore, one standard relationship between a measured maturity parameter and
hydrocarbon generation does not exist. Values such as 0.6% Ro are generally associated with the onset of oil
generation or indicate the top of the oil window. However, this generality applies only if a source rock is com posed
of pure type II organic matter (marine kerogen).
This section reviews some of the relationships between maturation indicators and hydrocarbon generation from
standard kerogen types.

Kerogen Type and Hydrocarbon Generation

Kerogen consists of many fractions, each converting to hydrocarbons at a specified rate. This rate of conversion to
hydrocarbons is defined by a first-order rate equation known as the Arrhenius law:

dx / dt = - kx
With : k = A exp (-E/RT)
A is the pre exponential factor (s
-1
)
E is the apparent activation energy (kcal/mol)
R is the gas constant (0.001987 kcal/mol)
T is the temperature (
o
K)

These are generally referred to as kinetic parameters. They can be measured using various pyrolysis techniques and
are different for each distinct kerogen analyzed.

Hydrocarbon generation depth and yield
The depth of hydrocarbon generation and the yield of individual hydrocarbon phases are primarily a function of the
kinetics of the kerogen - hydrocarbon conversion. Burial history and catalytic effects, due to source rock matrix
chemistry; affect the rate of generation, although these effects are secondary to the kinetic effects.
Comparison of Kerogen Types

The table below shows examples of the relationships between hydrocarbon
generation zones, maturity, and transformation ratio for standard types II
and III kerogens, based on a specific burial and thermal history model. The
most significant difference is in the depth to the onset of oil generation,
where 1000 m separates the top of the oil windows of these two kerogen
types.

Hydrocarbon
Generation
Zone
Vitrinite
Reflectance, %Ro
Transformation
Ratio, %
Present-day
Depth, m
Type II Type III Type II Type III Type II Type III
Onset Oil 0.55 0.85 5 12 2200 3200
Onset peak rate
generation
0.65 1.00 17 31 2600 3500
Onset gas/cracking
liquids
0.95 1.35 88 64 3400 4050
Maturation indicators as related to bitumen generated from different
kerogen types