INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

Architecture of
Kerala

INTRODUCTION
Kerala architecture is a kind of architectural style that is mostly
found in Indian state of Kerala and all the architectural wonders of
kerala stands out to be ultimate testimonials for the ancient
vishwakarma sthapathis of kerala. Kerala's style of architecture is
unique in India, in its striking contrast to Dravidian
architecture which is normally practiced in other parts of South
India. The architecture of Kerala has been influenced by
Dravidian and Indian Vedic architectural science (Vastu Shastra)
over two millennium. The Tantrasamuchaya, Thachu-Shastra,
Manushyalaya-Chandrika and Silparatna are important
architectural sciences, which have had a strong impact in Kerala
Architecture style. The Manushyalaya-Chandrika, a work devoted
to domestic architecture is one such science which has its strong
roots in Kerala.
The architectural style has evolved from Keralas peculiar climate
and long history of influences of its major maritime trading
partners like Chinese, Arabs and Europeans.

CONTENTS
1 Origins
2 History
2.1 Pre-historic Era
2.2 Influence of Buddhism and early Tamillakam
architecture
2.3 Migrant and Dravidian Influences
3 Composition and Structure
3.1 Composition
3.2 Materials
4 Structure
4.1 Religious Architecture
4.2 Domestic Architecture
4.3 Public Structures Architecture

The characteristic regional expression of Kerala architecture results from the geographical,
climatic and historic factors. Geographically Kerala is a narrow strip of land lying in
between western seaboard of peninsular India and confined between the
towering Western Ghats on its east and the vast Arabian sea on its west. Favoured by
plentiful rains due to Monsoon and bright sunshines, this land is lush green with vegetation
and rich in animal life. In the uneven terrain of this region human habitation is distributed
thickly in the fertile low-lands and sparsely towards the hostile highlands. Heavy rains have
brought in presence of large water bodies in form of lakes, rivers, backwaters and lagoons.
The climatic factors thus made its significant contributions in developing the architecture
style, to counter wettest climatic conditions coupled with heavy humidity and harsh tropical
summers.

History also played its own contributions to the Kerala architecture. The towering Western
Ghats on its east, has successfully prevented influences of neighboring Tamil countries
into present day Kerala in later times. While Western Ghats isolated Kerala to a greater
extent from Indian empires, the exposure of Arabian sea on its east brought in close
contacts between the ancient people of Kerala with major maritime civilizations
like Chinese, Egyptians, Romans, Arabs etc. The Keralas rich spice cultivations brought it
center of global maritime trade until modern periods, helping several international powers
to actively engage with Kerala as a trading partners. This helped in bring in influences of
these civilizations into Kerala architecture.
[1]


ORIGIN
THE ENTRANCE OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE TEMPLE WAS REDESIGNED IN 1921 BY THE GREAT
ARCHITECT LATE SRI EACHARA WARRIER.

POORNATHRAYISA TEMPLE IN TRIPUNITHURA.
TRIPUNITHURA HILL PALACE
ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE OF COCHIN RAJAS.
PRE-HISTORIC ERA
The locational feature of Kerala has influenced the social development and indirectly the
style of construction. In the ancient times the Arabian sea and the Ghats formed
impenetrable barriers helping the evolution of an isolated culture of Proto-Dravidians,
contemporary to theHarappan civilization. The earliest vestiges of constructions in Kerala
belong to this period dated between 3000 B.C. to 300 B.C. They can be grouped into two
types tomb cells and megaliths. The rock cut tomb cells are generally located in the
laterite zones of central Kerala, for example at Porkalam, Thrissur district. The tombs are
roughly oblong in plan with single or multiple bed chambers with a rectangular court in the
east from where steps rise to the ground level. Another type of burial chamber is made of
four slabs placed on edges and a fifth one covering them as a cap stone. One or more
such dolmens are marked by a stone circle. Among the megaliths are the umbrella stones
("kudakkal"), resembling handless palm leaf umbrellas used for covering pits enclosing
burial urns. Two other types of megaliths, hat stones ("thoppikkal") and menhirs
("pulachikkal") however have no burial appendages. They appear to be rather memorial
stones.
The megaliths are not of much architectural significance, but they speak of the custom of
the primitive tribes erecting memorials at sites of mortuary rites. These places later
became the annual meeting grounds of the tribes and gave rise to occult temples of
ancestral worship. While the custom of father worship can be seen in these cases, the
protecting deities of the villages were always in female form, who were worshiped in open
groves ("kavu"). These hypaethral temples had trees, stone symbols of Mother Goddesses
or other naturalistic or animistic image as objects of worship. The continuity of this early
culture is seen in the folk arts, cult rituals, worship of trees, serpents and mother images in
kavus.

INFLUENCE OF BUDDHISM AND EARLY
TAMILLAKAM ARCHITECTURE
The nature worship of the early inhabitants of Kerala has its parallel in serpent
worship and Buddhism, in the tree worship owing to the association of Buddha's
birth, revelation and preaching under a tree. This rose in parallel to the
developments in the other areas ofTamilakkam during the latter stages of
the Sangam period. Although sculptural relics of Buddhist images have been
recovered from a few places of southern Kerala, there are, however, no extant
Buddhist monuments in this region. But literary references such as the 3rd
century Tamil epic Manimekhalai and Mushika vamsa, a Sanskrit epic of the
eleventh century suggest the fact that Kerala had important Buddhist shrines.
The most renowned of these was the Sreemulavasa vihara with a magnificent
image of Bodhisatwa Lokanatha. This shrine is believed to have been washed
away by coastal erosion. In their design features some of the temples such as
Siva temple at Thrissur and the Bhagavathi temple at Kodungallur are believed
to be Buddhist viharas; but there is no irrefutable proof for such beliefs.

MADHUR TEMPLE, KASARAGOD, KERALA THE CIRCULAR ROOFS OF TEMPLES ARE DIRECT
LEGACY OF BUDDHIST INFLUENCES IN ANCIENT
KERALA ARCHITECTURAL STYLES
MIGRANT AND DRAVIDIAN INFLUENCES
Buddhism was co-existent with the indigenous Dravidian cultural and social practices of
Kerala. The early Tamil Sangam literature shows that by the First century A.D. the Cheras
ruled the central regions of Kerala and the Kongu lands (present Salem and Coimbatore
region). Its capital was Vanchi, identified with the Thiruvanchikulam near Kodungallur. At
this time the southern part of Kerala was ruled by the Ay chieftains and the northern parts
by the Nannans of Ezhilmalai. Between fourth and seventh centuries A.D. Brahmanas
appeared to have settled in Kerala and established their religion.
The amalgamation of different cultures and religious philosophies helped to evolve the
architectural styles of Kerala temples. Under the rule of the second Chera Perumals
(eighth-eleventh century) most of Kerala except the extreme north and south got unified.
This was highly conducive of architectural development and renovation of a large number
of temples.
After the decline of the Cheras several small principalities developed all over Kerala. By
fifteenth century, Kerala was broadly covered by the suzerainty of four principal chieftains
Venad rulers in the south, Kochi Maharajas in the centre, Zamorins of Kozhikode in the
north and Kolathiri Rajas in the extreme north. They were rulers who patronized
architectural activities. It was this period, Kerala Architecture started shaping its own
distinctive style.
A regional character in construction incorporating the Dravidian craft skills, unique forms
of Buddhist buildings, design concepts of vedic times and canonical theories of
Brahmanical Agamic practices in locally available materials and suited to the climatic
conditions was finally evolved in Kerala. The theory and practice of architectural
construction were also compiled during this period.

Their compilations remain as classical texts of a living tradition to this
day. Four important books in this area are;
Thantrasamuchayam (Chennas Narayanan Namboodiri)
and Silpiratnam (Sreekumara), covering temple architecture
Vastuvidya (anon.) and Manushyalaya Chandrika (Thirumangalathu
Sri Neelakandan), dealing with the domestic architecture. A number of
minor works in Sanskrit, Manipravalam and refined Malayalam, all based
on the above texts have found popularity in Kerala with the craftsmen
and professionals related with the subject.
Kerala is referred as one of the border kingdoms of the Maurya empire.
It is possible that Buddhists and Jainas were the first north Indian groups
to cross the borders of Kerala and establish their monasteries. These
religious groups were able to practise their faith and receive patronage
from the local kings to build shrines and viharas. For nearly eight
centuries Buddhism and Jainism seem to have co-existed in Kerala as
an important faith, contributing in its own way to the social and
architectural development of the region.

THE ORNATE MULTI-STOREYEDGOPURAM OF THE
DRAVDIAN KOVIL OF PADMANABHASWAMY
TEMPLE IN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM
THE CHUTTUAMBALAM PAVILION
ATCHOTTANIKKARA TEMPLE BUILT IN
CLASSICAL STYLE

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

Composition:

The primary elements of all structures trends to remain same. The base model is normally
circular, square or rectangular plain shapes with a ribbed roof evolved from functional
consideration. The most distinctive visual form of Kerala architecture is the long, steep
sloping roof built to protect the houses walls and to withstand the heavy monsoon,
normally laid with tiles or thatched labyrinth of palm leaves, supported on a roof frame
made of hard wood and timber. Structurally the roof frame was supported on the pillars on
walls erected on a plinth raised from the ground for protection against dampness and
insects in the tropical climate. Often the walls were also of timbers abundantly available in
Kerala. Gable windows were evolved at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when
ceiling was incorporated for the room spaces.
Most of Kerala buildings appears to low height visually, due to over-sloping of roofs, which
are meant to protect walls from rains and direct sun shine
The science of Vastu plays a very important role in developing architecture styles. The
basic concept underlines that, every structure built on earth has its own life, with a soul
and personality which is shaped by its surroundings. The most important science which
has Kerala has developed purely indigenously is Thachu-Shastra (Science of Carpentry)
as the easily availability of timber and its heavy use of it. The concept of Thachi underlines
that as timber is derived from a living form, the wood, when used for construction, has its
own life which must be synthesized in harmony with its surroundings and people whom
dwell inside it.

THE GRAND GOPURAMS OF KERALA TEMPLES AT
VAZHAPPALLY

A FULL VIEW OF KANAKAKKUNNU
PALACE AT TRIVANDRUM
THE GABLED ROOF AND CEILING WORKS ARE THE
PRIME FEATURE OF KERALA ARCHITECTURAL
STYLE
MATERIALS
The natural building materials available for construction in Kerala are stones, timber, clay and palm
leaves. Granite is a strong and durable building stone; however its availability is restricted mostly to the
highlands and only marginally to other zones. Owing to this, the skill in quarrying, dressing and
sculpturing of stone is scarce in Kerala. Laterite on the other hand is the most abundant stone found as
outcrops in most zones. Soft laterite available at shallow depth can be easily cut, dressed and used as
building blocks.
It is a rare local stone which gets stronger and durable with exposure at atmospheric air. Laterite blocks
may be bonded in mortars of shell lime, which have been the classic binding material used in traditional
buildings. Lime mortar can be improved in strength and performance by admixtures of vegetable juices.
Such enriched mortars were used for plastering or for serving as the base for mural painting and low
relief work.
Timber is the prime structural material abundantly available in many varieties in Kerala from bamboo
to teak. Perhaps the skilful choice of timber, accurate joinery, artful assembly and delicate carving of
wood work for columns, walls and roofs frames are the unique characteristics of Kerala architecture.
Clay was used in many forms for walling, in filling the timber floors and making bricks and tiles
after pugging and tempering with admixtures. Palm leaves were used effectively for thatching the roofs
and for making partition walls.
From the limitations of the materials, a mixed mode of construction was evolved in Kerala architecture.
The stone work was restricted to the plinth even in important buildings such as temples.
Laterite was used for walls. The roof structure in timber was covered with palm leaf thatching for most
buildings and rarely with tiles for palaces or temples. The exterior of the laterite walls were either left as
such or plastered with lime mortar to serve as the base for mural painting. The sculpturing of the stone
was mainly moulding in horizontal bands in the plinth portion (adhistans) whereas the carving of timber
covered all elements _ pillars, beams, ceiling, rafters and the supporting brackets. The Kerala murals
are paintings with vegetable dyes on wet walls in subdued shades of brown. The indigenous adoption of
the available raw materials and their transformation as enduring media for architectural expression thus
became the dominant feature of the Kerala style.

THE VARIOUS AREAS OF A TYPICAL KERALA
NALUKETTU HOUSE. WOOD, LATERITE, TERRACOTTA
AND GRANITE PLAYS AN IMPORTANT ROLE IN
FORMING A TRADITIONAL KERALA HOUSE
THE TYPICAL WOOD CARVINGS MADE ON
CEILINGS OF SREE PADMANABHAPURAM
PALACE
RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
Temple Architecture
The sculptural work is of two types. One category is the low relief done on the outer walls of the shrine with masonry set in lime mortar and
finished with plaster and painting. The second is the sculpturing of the timber elements the rafter ends, the brackets, the timber columns and
their capitals, door frames, wall plates and beams. Decorative sculptural work is seen best in the ceiling panels of the mandapas. Exquisite
lacquer work in brick red and black colour was adopted for turned columns of timber. Metal craft was also used in sculpturing idols, motifs,
cladding and fenials. All sculptural works were done strictly according to the canons of proportions (ashtathala, navathala and dasathala system)
applicable to different figures of men, gods and goddesses, prescribed in texts.
Phases of evolution
In its stylistic development, the temple architecture can be divided into three phases.
The first phase is that of rock-cut temples. This earliest form is contemporary to Buddhist cave temples. Rock-cut temples are mainly located in
southern Kerala at Vizhinjam and Ayirurpara near Tiruvananthapuram, Kottukal near Kollam and Kaviyoor near Alappuzha. Of these the one
at Kaviyoor is the best example. The Kaviyoor cave temple dedicated to Siva comprises a shrine room and a spacious ardhamandapa arranged
axially facing the west. On the pillared facade as well as on the walls inside the ardhamandapa are sculptured reliefs of the donor, a bearded
rishi, a seated four armed Ganesh and dwarapalas. The other cave temples also have this general pattern of a shrine and an ante-room and
they are associated with Siva worship. In the north similar rock-cut temples of saiva cult are seen at Trikkur and Irunilamkode in Trissoor district.
Historically the cave architecture in India begins with Buddhism and the technique of rock-cut architecture in Kerala seems to be a continuation
of similar works in Tamil Nadu under the Pandyas. The rock-cut temples are all dated prior to the eighth century A.D.
The structural temples appear in the second phase spanning the eighth to tenth centuries, and patronised by the Chera, Ay and Mushika
chieftains. The earliest temples had a unitary shrine or a srikovil. In rare cases a porch or ardhamandapa is seen attached to the shrine. A
detached namaskara mandapa is generally built in front of the srikovil. A quadrangular building, nalambalam that encloses the srikovil, the
namaskara mandapa, balikkal (altar stones) etc. became part of this basic plan composition of the Kerala temple started emerging in this phase.
The middle phase of the evolution of the temples is characterised by the emergence of the sandhara shrine. In the unitary shrine of the earlier
type, Nirendhara (single level of srikovil), there is a cell with a single doorway to the cell. But in the sandhara shrine the cell has twin wells
leaving a passage in between them. Also there are often four functional doors on all the four cardinal directions and pierced windows to provide
subdued light in the passage. Sometimes the functional door on the sides and the rear are replaced by pseudo doors.
In the last phase, (13001800 A.D.) the stylistic development reached its apogee with greater complexity in the temple layout and elaboration of
detail. The vilakkumadam, the palisade structure fixed with rows of oil lamps is added beyond the nalambalam as an outer ring. The Altar stone
is also housed in a pillared structure, the Balikkal mandapam in front of the agrasala (valiyambalam). A deepastambham and dwajasthambham
(the lamp post and flag mast) are added in front of the balikkal mandapam.
Technically the most important feature of the temple architecture of Kerala is the construction technique using a dimensional standardisation.
The nucleus of the temple plan is the shrine containing the garbhagrhiha cell. The width of this cell is the basic module of the dimensional
system. In plan composition, the width of the shrine, the open space around it, the position and sizes of the surrounding structures, are all
related to the standard module. In vertical composition, this dimensional co-ordination is carried right up to the minute construction details such
as the size of the pillars, wall plates, rafters etc. The canonical rules of the proportionate system are given in the treatises and preserved by the
skilled craftsmen. This proportionate system has ensured uniformity in architectural style irrespective of the geographical distribution and scale
of construction.

STRUCTURE --
THE STANDARD LAYOUT OF KERALA
TEMPLE.
PHASES OF EVOLUTION
(THE NALUKETTU COMPLEX)
--

Namaskara Mandapam
The namaskara mandapa is a square shaped pavilion with a raised platform, a set of pillars and a pyramidal roof. The size of the mandapa is
decided by the width of the shrine cell. The pavilion in its simplest form has four corner pillars; but larger pavilions are provided with two sets of
pillars; four inside and twelve outside. Pavilions of circular, elliptical and polygonal shapes are mentioned in the texts, but they are not seen in
Kerala temples. The Mandapams are used to conducting Vedic-Thantric rites.
Nalambalam
The outer grounds of Temple, called Chuttuambalam
The shrine and the mandapa building are enclosed in a rectangular structure called the nalambalam. Functionally the rear and side halls of the
nalambalam serves for various activities related to the ritualistic worship. The front hall is pierced with the entry, dividing it into two parts. These
two halls; Agrasalas which used for feeding Brahmans, performing yagas and while Koothuambalam are used for staging temple arts such as
koothu and temple murals. In few cases, Koothuambalams are separated as an individual structure outside Nalambalam.
Balithara
The Dwajasthampam or flag post of temple, located in Chuttuambalam
At the entrance of Nalambalam, a square shaped raised stone altar called as Balithara can be seen. This altar is used to make ritualistic
offerings to demi-gods and other spirits. Inside the Nalambalam, several small stones, called Balikallukal can be seen, meant for same
purpose.
Chuttuambalam
The Gppuram or Gate houses of temples
The outer structure within the temple walls, is known as Chuttuambalam. Normally Chuttuambalam has main pavilion known as Mukha-
Mandapam or Thala-mandapam. The Mukha-Mandapam will have the Dwajastambam (Sacred Flag-post) in center of it and has several pillars
supporting mandapam. The temple is now fully enclosed in a massive wall (Kshetra-Madillukal) pierced with gate houses or gopurams. The
gopuram is usually two-storeyed, which served two purposes. The ground floor was an open space generally used as a platform for temple
dances such as kurathy dance or ottan thullal during festivals. The upper floor with wooden trails covering the sides functioned as a kottupura _
(a hall for drums beating). The Chuttuambalam will normally has 4 gates from outside to entrance at all sides. A stone paved walk-way will be
seen around the Chuttuambalam to allow devotees circulate around the temple, which for some large temples are covered with roof supported
with massive pillars on both sides. The Chuttuambalam will have Dwajavillakku or giant lamp-posts in several places, mostly in Mukha-
mandapams.
Ambala-Kulam
The temple pond or Ambala-Kulam at Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple
Every temple will have a sacred temple pond or water lake located within temple complex. As per Vastu-rules, water is considered as source of
positive energy and synthesis balance of all energies. Hence a temple pond or Ambala Kulam will be made available within the temple
complex. The temple pond is normally used only by priests as holy bath before start of rituals as well as for various sacred rituals within the
temple. In few cases, a separate pond will be constructed to allow devotees to bath before entering in temple. Today several temples have
Mani-Kenar or Holy Well within the Nalambalam complex to get sacred waters for purposes of Abisekham.
Thevarapura
The Koothuambalams are prime venues for conduct of temple dances and other art forms. The height of Koothuambalam's roof are much
similar to Pyramids, makes it more majestic and gives a distant feeling from temple
Normally within Nalambalam, a separate complex will be constructed for cooking foods meant to serve for the deity and distribution among
devotees as holy prasadam. Such complexes are called Thevarapura, where the holy fire or Agni is invoked.

Thevarapur
a
Nalambalam
Balithara
Chuttuambalam
Ambala-Kulam


ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

Undoubtedly Islam spread in Kerala through the migration of new groups from Arabian Peninsula and the
gradual conversion of native population in the permissive and all accommodating Indian cultural ethos and
social set up of Kerala. By twelfth century AD there were at least ten major settlements of Muslims distributed
from Kollam in the south to Mangalore in the north each centered around the mosque. Also a branch of the
ruling kingdom at Arakkal, Kannur was converted to Islam. The primacy in trade, the spread of the faith and the
experience of the sea made Muslims a prominent class and dear to the rulers, especially of the Kozhikode
Zamorins. Consequently by fifteenth century Islamic constructions reached considerable heights.
The mosque architecture of Kerala exhibits none of the features of the Arabic style nor those of the Indo-Islamic
architectures of the imperial or provincial school in north India. The reason for this is not far to seek. The work
of mosque construction was done by the local Hindu artisans under instructions of the Muslim religious heads
who wanted to erect the places of worship. The models for places of worship were only Hindu temples or the
theatre halls ("koothambalam") and these models are to be adapted for the new situations. The early mosques
in Kerala consequently resemble the traditional building of the region. Arabic style of architecture was
introduced to the Malabar area of present day Kerala, during the period of occupation by Hyder Ali and later by
Tipu Sultan during the eighteenth century. A large number of temples were converted to mosques during this
period as evidenced by the traditional Kerala style of these structures.
In plan the mosque comprises a large prayer hall with a mihrab on the western wall (since Mecca is west to
Kerala) and covered verandah all around. Generally it has a tall basement similar to the adhistana of the
Brahmanical temple and often the columns are treated with square and octagonal section as
in mandapa pillars. The walls are made of laterite blocks. The arch form is seen only in one exceptional case
for themosque at Ponnani and nowhere else in the early ten mosques of the land. Wood was used extensively
in superstructure for the construction of ceiling and roof. The roof in many cases is covered with sheets of
copper incorporating fenials in the ridge, completing the form of templesikhara with the stupi. At Tanur the Jama
Masjid even has a gate built in the manner of temple gopuram, covered with copper sheeting. This mosque
itself is a three-storeyed building with tiled roof crowned by five fenials. All other construction work was done by
the same local craftsmen who were building the Hindu temples and residences. The Arabic tradition of
simplicity of plan had perhaps combined itself with the indigenous construction techniques giving rise to the
unique style of mosque architecture, not found anywhere else in the world. In contrast the Indo-Islamic
architecture drew its inspiration from the Turkish and Persian traditions and created highly ornamental style in
the north India.
CLASSIC EXAMPLE OF KERALA'S NATIVE MOSQUE STYLE WITH
GABLED ROOFS, SLOPED WOODEN WINDOW PANELS AND
WITHOUT MINARETS
The Cheraman Mosque, which is World's
second and sub-continent's first mosque
was originally built in Kerala style, which
was renovated recently to give Arabic
touch
The Kannur Mosque symbolizes the slow
transit from Kerala style to Persian style
with additions of Minarets and other
classical Persian features in traditional
Kerala style
CHURCH ARCHITECTURE

The Kadamattom Church in Kolencherry- Ernakulam, is one of the oldest churches in Kerala, built in pure
Kerala style.
The evolution of the church architecture of Kerala springs from two sources the first from the work of Apostle
St. Thomas and the Syrian Christians and second from the missionary work of European settlers. The tradition
has it that St. Thomas who landed in Muziris in 52 AD had seven churches built in Kerala at Kodungallur,
Chayil, Palur, Paravur, Kollam, Niranom and Kothamangalam, but none of these churches are now extant. It is
possible that some of the temples were adapted as church for services by the population who got converted
into Christianity by St. Thomas. For example the present Palur church has preserved the abhisheka patra (the
letter of intonation) and certain shaiva symbols as the relics of the old church which is said to have been a
Hindu shrine adapted for Christian worship. Since the early Christians lived in isolation, far from the main
centres of Christianity, they were not aware of the church-building conventions of the west; besides the
community itself has a Hindu background and Hindu temples were their models for church building.
Portuguese introduced the Western facades in church architecture style, which was blended with Kerala
architecture
Historical evidences suggest that the first wave of Christianity came from Syria in the fourth century A.D. owing
to the persecution of Christians in the Persian empire. According to the narration of Byzantine monk Cosmas,
Kerala had many churches by sixth century A.D. According to the inscription of the times of Stanu Ravi by ninth
century, Christian communities enjoyed many rights and privileges. They also played a vital role in trade and
commerce. The domestic buildings of the Syrian Christians were akin to the native architecture.
The Orthodox Christians have most their churches built in traditional Kerala style, resembling temples of
Kerala. This Orthodox church in Chengannur has been built in Kerala style with stone lamps, and is a testimony
of assimilation of Kerala Christianity with native architecture.
But original Syrians who had migrated to Kerala had brought with them some of the west Asian conventions in
church architecture. Consequently churches with regular chance and have began to be built and there evolved
a distinctive style of church architecture. The peculiar feature of this style was the ornamental gable facade at
the nave end, surmounted by a cross. An entry porch (shala) in front of the nave was another feature of these
early shrines. The baptistry was a small chamber inside the nave near the entrance. Belfries were built on one
side of the nave, but in smaller churches the bell was hung in an opening in the nave gable

THE KADAMATTOM CHURCH IN
KOLENCHERRY- ERNAKULAM, IS ONE OF
THE OLDEST CHURCHES IN KERALA,
BUILT IN PURE KERALA STYLE.
THE KOTTAKKAVU CHURCH IN PARAVUR
IS A MIXTURE OF EUROPEAN AND
KERALA ARCHITECTURE
Portuguese introduced the
Western facades in church
architecture style, which was
blended with Kerala architecture
and is a testimony
of assimilation of
Kerala Christianity
with native
architecture.
Orthodox church in
Chengannur has been
built in Kerala style with
stone lamps,
The Archbishop's Palace at
Changassery is built assimilating
Dutch architecture with Kerala's
native styles
DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE
The evolution of domestic architecture of Kerala followed closely the trend of development in temple
architecture. The primitive models were huts made of bamboo frame thatched with leaves in circular, square or
rectangular plain shapes. The rectangular shape with a hipped roof appears to have been finally evolved from
functional consideration. Structurally the roof frame was supported on the pillars on walls erected on a plinth
raised from the ground for protection against dampness and insects in the tropical climate. Often the walls were
also of timbers abundantly available in the land. The roof frame consisted of the bressumer or wall plate which
supported lower ends of the rafters, the upper ends being connected to the ridge. The weight of the rafters and
the roof covering created a sage in the ridge when the ridge piece was made of flexible materials like bamboo.
This sage however remained as the hall-mark of roof construction even when strong timber was used for the
roof frame. Further gable windows were evolved at the two ends to provide attic ventilation when ceiling was
incorporated for the room spaces. This ensured air circulation and thermal control for the roof. The lower ends
of the rafters projected much beyond the walls to shade the walls from the sun and driving rain. The closed
form of the Kerala houses was thus gradually evolved from technical considerations. One can see the striking
similarity of this form with the temple structure. The plinth, the lower most part is still called adisthana, though it
is plain or less ornate. The sthambas or pillars and bhithis or walls are again of simple shape with no projection
or recesses. The main door faces only in one cardinal direction and the windows are small and are made like
pierced screens of wood. The rectangular plan is usually divided into two or three activity rooms with access
from a front passage. The projecting caves cover a verandah all round. By tenth century, the theory and
practice of domestic architecture were codified in books such as Manushyalaya Chandrika and Vastu vidya.
This attempt standardized the house construction suited to different socio-economic groups and strengthens
the construction tradition among the craftsmen. The traditional craftsman, specially carpenters, preserved the
knowledge by rigidly following the canonical rules of proportions of different elements as well as the
construction details to this day.
The classic roof decors made in Kerala Palaces
Basically the domestic architecture of Kerala follows the style of detached building; row houses seen in other
parts of India are neither mentioned in Kerala texts nor put up in practice except in settlements (sanketam)
occupied by Tamil or Konkini Brahmans. In its most developed form the typical Kerala house is a courtyard type
nalukettu. The central courtyard is an outdoor living space which may house some object of cult worship such
as a raised bed for tulssi or jasmine (mullathara). The four halls enclosing the courtyard, identical to the
nalambalam of the temple, may be divided into several rooms for different activities such as cooking, dining,
sleeping, studying, storage of grains etc. Depending on the size and importance of the household the building
may have one or two upper storeys (malika) or further enclosed courtyard by repetition of the nalukettu to form
ettukettu (eight halled building) or a cluster of such courtyards.

Intricate wood carvings & chuttu
verandah in Kerala architecture
The Sree Padmanabhapuram Palace
represents the most classic Kerala
domestic architecture. It is also the
world's largest wooden palace made on
sloping roofs, granite and rosewood-
teak wood work combinations
Nalukettu -
A Classic Nalukettu of Kerala built in Kerala architecture
Nlukettu is the traditional homestead of Tharavadu where many generations of a matrilineal family lived. These types of buildings are typically found in the Indian
state of Kerala. The traditional architecture is typically a rectangular structure where four blocks are joined together with a central courtyard open to the sky. The
four halls on the sides are named Vadakkini (northern block), Padinjattini (western block), Kizhakkini (eastern block) and Thekkini (southern block). The
architecture was especially catered to large families of the traditional tharavadu, to live under one roof and enjoy the commonly owned facilities of the
marumakkathayam homestead.

Elements of Nalukettu -
Padippura
It is a structure containing a door forming part of Compound wall for the house with a tiled roof on top. It is the formal entry to the compound with the house. At
present the door is not there as car will have to enter the house through the entry. Still tiled roof is provided preferably with a traditional type lamp below the roof.
Instead of door of entry, we now have the Gate
Poomukham
It is the prime portico soon after steps to the house. Traditionally it has a slope tiled roof with pillars supporting roof. Sides are open. In the earlier days, the head
of the family called Karanavar used to sit here in a reclining chair with thuppal kolambi (Spittoon) by the side of chair. This chair will have long rails on either side
where the Karanavar will keep his legs raised for comfortable rest
Chuttu verandah
The wooden gabbled windows of Krishnapuram Palace
From the Poomukham, a verandah to either side in front of the house through open passage called Chuttu Verandah. Chuttu verandah will have hanging lights in
equal distance hanging from its slope roof.
Charupady
The typical wooden windows and charupady of Kerala
By the side of Chuttu verandah and Poomukham, wooden benches with carved decorative resting wooden pieces for resting the back are provided. This is called
Charupady. Traditionally the family members or visitors used to sit on these charupady to talk
Ambal Kulam (Pond)
Almost every Nalukettu has its own Kulam or Pond for bathing of its members.
At the end of Chuttu verandah there used to be a small pond built with rubble on sides where lotus or Ambal used to be planted. The water bodies are maintained
to synthesized energy flow inside.
Nadumuttom
A typical Nadumuttom of Kerala Nalukettu
Traditionally Nadumuttom or central open courtyard is the prime center the Nalukettu. There is an open area usually square shaped in the exact middle of the
house dividing the house in its four sides. Due to this four side division of the house by having a Nadumuttom. Similarly there was Ettu kettu and Pathinaru kettu
which are quite rare with two and four Nadumuttom respectively
A classic Nadumuttom with holy thulsi in center of it
Nadumuttom will be normally open to sky, allowing sunshine and rains to pour in. This is to allow natural energies to circulate within the house and allow positive
vibrance within. A thulsi or tree will be normally planted in center of Nadumuttom, which is used to worship. Architecturally the logic is allow tree to act as a natural
air purifier.
Pooja Room
Pooja room should preferably be in the North East corner of the house. Idols can be placed facing east or west and the person praying can face west or east
respectively. At present, woodden paneling is done on Pooja room walls and there is a standard design for Pooja room which can be given to clients interested in
having traditional Pooja room

A Classic Nalukettu of Kerala built in
Kerala architecture
The wooden gabbled windows of
Krishnapuram Palace
The typical wooden windows
and charupady of Kerala
A typical Nadumuttom
of Kerala Nalukettu
A classic Nadumuttom with
holy thulsi in center of it
KEY POINTS OF DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE -

The whole being protected with a compound wall or fence. An entrance structure (padippura) may also be
constructed like the gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or occasional visitors who
are not entertained in the main house. The position and sizes of various buildings, including the location of trees and
paths within the compound wall were to be decided from the analysis of the site according to the prescriptions in the
classic texts. This analysis involved the concept of vastupurusha mandala wherein the site (vastu) was divided into a
number of grids (padam) occupied by different deities (devatha) and appropriate grids were chosen to house the
suspicious structures. The site planning and building design was done by learned vishwakarma sthapathis (master
builders) who synthesized the technical matters with astrological and mystical sciences.
There are numerous buildings of the nalukettu type in different parts of Kerala, though many of them are in a poor
state of maintenance. Changing socio-economic conditions have split up the joint-family system centered around the
large nalukettu. The Kailasa mandiram at Kottakkal belonging to the Arya Vaidyasala is a standing example of a
three-storeyed nalukettu complex. Of the best preserved examples of this type are Mattancherry palace at Kochi and
the taikottaram of the Padmanabhapuram palace near Kanyakumari.
Nalukettu type buildings are also seen in many villages and towns, occupied by prominent people. The humbler
buildings of the population are however smaller and simpler in form but basically derived from the nalukettu.
Nalukettu is a combination of four halls along four cardinal directions, centered around the courtyard or anganam one
may build any one of the four halls (Ekasala), a combination of two (Dwisala) or a complex of three (Thrisala)
depending on the needs. The most commonly found type in Kerala is the Ekasala facing east or north. Being located
on the western and southern sides of the anganam they are referred as western hall (padinjattini) and southern hall
(thekkini) respectively.
The core unit of Ekasala consists of generally three rooms connected to a front passage. The central room is used as
prayer room and grain store and the two side rooms are used as living rooms. The core unit may be raised to an
upper storey with a steep stair located in the front passage. The building may also be extended horizontally on all the
four sides adding alindams or side rooms for activities such as cooking, dining, additional sleeping rooms, front hall
for receiving guests etc.The Chappamattam Tharavadu at Chirakkadavu is a classical example of extended Ekasala.
If needed Ekasala may also be provided with ancillary buildings for cattle keeping, barn, bathing rooms near tanks,
outhouse for guests, gate house etc. By such extension the building may become much larger than a Nalukettu in
space, but it is still categorized as Ekasala with reference to its core unit.
Vastuvidya texts prescribe the dimensions of different house types suitable for different classes. They also give the
proportional system of measurements for different parts of the building all based on the perimeter (chuttu) of the core
unit. The scientific basis of this dimensional system is yet to be enquired by modern studies; however the system
appears to be well founded on traditional computational methods and rigidily adhered to all sizes of buildings. All over
Kerala and specially in villages where the building activity is still carried out under the control of traditional stapathis,
the system is still a living practice, though it has started disappearing under the impact of 'modern architecture'.

PUBLIC STRUCTURES ARCHITECTURE
Portuguese were the first, to introduce independent office complexes which stand away from residential quarters. This was out of necessity to make
warehouses and its related offices away from residential apart as safety precautions.The public architectural development in Kerala was highly
influenced by the European style during seventeenth to nineteenth century. The influence of the Portuguese and Dutch was most predominant in the
initial stages. A Portuguese architect Thomas Fernandez is credited with the construction of forts, warehouses and bungalows at Kochi, Kozhikode and
Kannur. The projecting balconies, Gothic arches and cast-iron window grill work are a few of the features passed on to Kerala architecture by the
Portuguese construction. Portuguese have commissioned more than 2000 office and warehouse complexes in Fort Cochin area, apart from several
European styled castles and private residential villas.
By eighteenth century British style was being popularised in the land as a result of a large number of modern constructions directly carried out by the
British rulers on the one hand and the fashion for things Western by the princely class and the rich on the other. The architectural work was guided by
the officers and engineers whose knowledge of the architectural style was essentially restricted to the classic books on renaissance architects
Vitruvious, Alberti & Palladio and executed by indigenous knowledge of traditional masons and carpenters recruited for the work. In a sense it was a
compromise of antique craft and neo-classical construction needs.
A notable feature of the early European work in India was a tendency to demonstrate military, political and cultural superiority of the west. The Greek and
Roman antiquity was considered as the richest heritage of the west and the same was emphasised in the classic orders of pillars with triangular
pediments, arches and domes for public buildings, town halls, hospitals, railway stations, colleges etc. Expression of dominance was inbuilt in Doric and
Ionian columns of large dimension. At the same time the purity of classic Western style gave way to the effect of style by mixing different types of
columns in all sorts of buildings. For example Corinthian columns were used mixed with Doric order in public buildings as well as residences.
This trend was however moderated very much in Kerala owing to the limitations of materials and climate.
For the masonry work the media of Indo-European work remained the laterite and lime plastering. The potentiality of exposed laterite was explored in
many cases from railway quarters to government offices (e.g. old Huzur office Collectorate, Kozhikode). Lime plastering and finishing was transferred
from the interior walls of places to the exterior of buildings also to create the superwhite buildings of marble cult. The old pan tiles were replaced by
Mangalore pattern tiles and flat tiles. The roof frame of traditional type was changed to trussed roof-using King post and Queen post trusses, making it
possible to span large areas.
Perhaps the adaptations of European style to the climatic needs and the synthesis with traditional style are best seen in the bungalow architecture. The
comfort requirement in the hot humid climate prompted the European settlers to go in for buildings with large rooms with high ceiling with verandah all
around. For upper floor rooms balconies were adopted as a necessary feature, originating from the Portuguese construction. The portico, the shaded
spot for passage from one building to another was added. The solid wooden shutter of doors and windows underwent change to ribbed elements
Venetian blades permitting air circulation and providing privacy simultaneously. By 1800 glazed panels came into vogue and semicircular fan light over
doors and windows became fashionable features of domestic buildings. Brick arches, terracota pieces and exposed brick work in various bonding
patterns became popular. With larger number and bigger size of windows, pediments or projections supported by ornamental brackets and column
decoration for protecting the window opening from rain and sun also were introduced. Cast iron fences, stair balustrades and iron grills, made in
England, were used to complete the bungalow architecture.
Excellent examples of this synthesis are seen in the Napier museum at Tiruvananthapuram, and many government bungalows. In fact many of these
features were smoothly adopted by the native builders to the extent that they are considered by most as traditional elements. The works of Public Works
Departments have helped to spread this type of construction all over Kerala. Further the introduction of engineering education with emphasis to the
western practice of construction have promoted this trend practically displacing traditional design methods.

The exterior of Kanakakkunnu
Palace built in Kerala style with
Dutch influences
Traditional Kerala House with
Ettukettu Architecture in
Mattanur