2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Lecture Presentations prepared by

J ason LaPres
Lone Star CollegeNorth Harris
24
The Digestive System
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
Learning Outcomes
24-1 Identify the organs of the digestive system, list
their major functions, describe the functional
histology of the digestive tract, and outline the
mechanisms that regulate digestion.
24-2 Discuss the anatomy of the oral cavity, and list
the functions of its major structures and
regions.
24-3 Describe the structure and functions of the
pharynx.
24-4 Describe the structure and functions of the
esophagus.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
Learning Outcomes
24-5 Describe the anatomy of the stomach, including
its histological features, and discuss its roles in
digestion and absorption.
24-6 Describe the anatomical and histological
characteristics of the small intestine, explain the
functions and regulation of intestinal secretions,
and describe the structure, functions, and
regulation of the accessory digestive organs.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
Learning Outcomes
24-7 Describe the gross and histological structure of
the large intestine, including its regional
specializations and role in nutrient absorption.
24-8 List the nutrients required by the body, describe
the chemical events responsible for the
digestion of organic nutrients, and describe the
mechanisms involved in the absorption of
organic and inorganic nutrients.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
Learning Outcomes
24-9 Summarize the effects of aging on the digestive
system.
24-10 Give examples of interactions between the
digestive system and other organ systems
studied so far.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
The Digestive System
Acquires nutrients from environment
Anabolism
Uses raw materials to synthesize essential compounds
Catabolism
Decomposes substances to provide energy cells need
to function

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
An Introduction to the Digestive System
Catabolic Reactions
Require two essential ingredients
1. Oxygen
2. Organic molecules broken down by intracellular
enzymes
For example, carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Tract
Also called gastrointestinal (GI) tract or alimentary
canal
Is a muscular tube
Extends from oral cavity to anus
Passes through pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and
small and large intestines
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-1 The Components of the Digestive System
Mouth
Anus
Major Subdivisions of
the Digestive Tract
Oral Cavity, Teeth, Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Mechanical processing, moistening,
mixing with salivary secretions
Muscular propulsion of materials into the
esophagus
Transport of materials to the stomach
Chemical breakdown of materials by acid
and enzymes; mechanical processing
through muscular contractions
Enzymatic digestion and absorption of
water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions
Enzymatic digestion and absorption of
water, organic substrates, vitamins, and ions
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-1 The Components of the Digestive System
Accessory Organs of
the Digestive System
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
Secretion of lubricating fluid
containing enzymes that
break down carbohydrates
Secretion of bile (important
for lipid digestion), storage of
nutrients, many other vital
functions
Storage and concentration of
bile
Exocrine cells secrete buffers
and digestive enzymes;
endocrine cells secrete
hormones
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Six Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion
2. Mechanical processing
3. Digestion
4. Secretion
5. Absorption
6. Excretion
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Ingestion
Occurs when materials enter digestive tract via the
mouth
Mechanical Processing
Crushing and shearing
Makes materials easier to propel along digestive
tract
Digestion
The chemical breakdown of food into small organic
fragments for absorption by digestive epithelium
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Secretion
Is the release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers,
and salts
By epithelium of digestive tract
By glandular organs
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Absorption
Movement of organic substrates, electrolytes,
vitamins, and water
Across digestive epithelium
Into interstitial fluid of digestive tract
Excretion
Removal of waste products from body fluids
Process called defecation removes feces
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Lining of the Digestive Tract
Safeguards surrounding tissues against:
1. Corrosive effects of digestive acids and enzymes
2. Mechanical stresses, such as abrasion
3. Bacteria either ingested with food or that reside in
digestive tract

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Organs and the Peritoneum
Lined with serous membrane consisting of:
Superficial mesothelium covering a layer of areolar
tissue
Serosa, or visceral peritoneum
Covers organs within peritoneal cavity
Parietal peritoneum
Lines inner surfaces of body wall
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Peritoneal Fluid
Is produced by serous membrane lining
Provides essential lubrication
Separates parietal and visceral surfaces
Allows sliding without friction or irritation
About 7 liters produced and absorbed daily, but
very little in peritoneal cavity at one time
Ascites excess peritoneal fluid causing
abdominal swelling
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesenteries
Are double sheets of peritoneal membrane
Suspend portions of digestive tract within peritoneal
cavity by sheets of serous membrane
That connect parietal peritoneum
With visceral peritoneum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesenteries
Areolar tissue between mesothelial surfaces
Provides an access route to and from the digestive
tract
For passage of blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic
vessels
Stabilize positions of attached organs
Prevent intestines from becoming entangled
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Mesentery Development
During embryonic development
Digestive tract and accessory organs are suspended in
peritoneal cavity by:
Dorsal mesentery
Ventral mesentery
Later disappears along most of digestive tract
except at the lesser omentum and at the
falciform ligament
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-2a Mesenteries
During embryonic development, the digestive tube
is initially suspended by dorsal and ventral
mesenteries.
4 weeks
5 weeks Ventral mesentery
Digestive tract
Developing
liver
Dorsal
mesentery
Coelomic
cavity
Peritoneal
cavity
Notochord
Neural tube
Mesoderm
Visceral
peritoneum
Digestive
tract
Parietal
peritoneum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Lesser Omentum
Stabilizes position of stomach
Provides access route for blood vessels and other
structures entering or leaving liver
The Falciform Ligament
Helps stabilize position of liver
Relative to diaphragm and abdominal wall
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Dorsal Mesentery
Enlarges to form an enormous pouch, called the
greater omentum
Extends inferiorly between:
The body wall and the anterior surface of small
intestine
Hangs like an apron
From lateral and inferior borders of stomach
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Adipose Tissue in Greater Omentum
Conforms to shapes of surrounding organs
Pads and protects surfaces of abdomen
Provides insulation to reduce heat loss
Stores lipid energy reserves
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Mesentery Proper
Is a thick mesenterial sheet
Provides stability
Permits some independent movement
Suspends all but first 25 cm (10 in.) of small intestine
Is associated with initial portion of small intestine
(duodenum) and pancreas
Fuses with posterior abdominal wall, locking
structures in position
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Mesocolon
A mesentery associated with a portion of the large
intestine
Transverse mesocolon supports transverse colon
Sigmoid mesocolon supports sigmoid colon
During development, mesocolon of ascending colon,
descending colon, and the rectum:
Fuse to dorsal body wall
Lock regions in place
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-2b Mesenteries
A diagrammatic view of the organization of
mesenteries in an adult.
Lesser
omentum
Mesentery
proper
(mesenterial
sheet)
Ascending
colon
Transverse
colon
Descending
colon
Small
intestine
Sigmoid
colon
Greater
omentum (cut)
Transverse
mesocolon
Mesocolon of ascending
and descending colons
fused to posterior portion
of the parietal peritoneum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 28-2c Mesenteries
An anterior view of the empty peritoneal cavity,
showing the attachment of mesenteries to the
posterior body wall.
Diaphragm
Pancreas
Esophagus
Left kidney
Attachment of
transverse mesocolon
Superior mesenteric
artery and vein
Position of
descending colon
Attachment of
sigmoid mesocolon
Parietal
peritoneum
Falciform
ligament
Inferior
vena cava
Coronary
ligament
of liver
Right kidney
Duodenum
Rectum
Position of
ascending
colon
Root of
mesentery
proper
Urinary
bladder
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-2d Mesenteries
A sagittal section showing the mesenteries of
an adult. Notice that the pancreas, duodenum,
and rectum are retroperitoneal.
Falciform
ligament
Diaphragm
Uterus
Urinary
bladder
Sigmoid
mesocolon
Mesentery
proper
Rectum
Duodenum
Pancreas
Lesser
omentum
Stomach
Transverse
mesocolon
Transverse
colon
Greater
omentum
Parietal
peritoneum
Small
intestine
Liver
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Histological Organization of the Digestive Tract
Four major layers of the digestive tract
1. Mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Muscularis externa
4. Serosa
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-3 The Structure of the Digestive Tract
Mesenteric
artery and vein
Mesentery
Plica
circulares
Muscularis
externa
Serosa
(visceral
peritoneum)
Submucosa
Mucosa
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-3 The Structure of the Digestive Tract
Plica
circulares
Muscularis
externa
Serosa
(visceral
peritoneum)
Submucosa
Mucosa
Mucosa
Mucosal
epithelium
Lamina
propria
Villi
Mucosal glands
Submucosal gland
Muscularis
mucosae
Lymphatic vessel
Artery and vein
Submucosal
plexus
Circular muscle
layer
Myenteric plexus
Longitudinal
muscle layer
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Mucosa
Is the inner lining of digestive tract
Is a mucous membrane consisting of:
Epithelium, moistened by glandular secretions
Lamina propria of areolar tissue
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Epithelium
Mucosal epithelium is simple or stratified
Depending on location, function, and stresses
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Epithelium
Oral cavity, pharynx, and esophagus
Mechanical stresses
Lined by stratified squamous epithelium
Stomach, small intestine, and most of large intestine
Absorption
Simple columnar epithelium with mucous cells
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Digestive Epithelium
Enteroendocrine cells
Are scattered among columnar cells of digestive
epithelium
Secrete hormones that:
Coordinate activities of the digestive tract and
accessory glands
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Lining of Digestive Tract
Folding increases surface area for absorption
Longitudinal folds, disappear as digestive tract fills
Permanent transverse folds (plicae circulares)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Lamina Propria
Consists of a layer of areolar tissue that contains:
Blood vessels
Sensory nerve endings
Lymphatic vessels
Smooth muscle cells
Scattered areas of lymphoid tissue
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Lamina Propria
Muscularis mucosae
Narrow band of smooth muscle and elastic fibers in
lamina propria
Smooth muscle cells arranged in two concentric layers
Inner layer encircles lumen (circular muscle)
Outer layer contains muscle cells parallel to tract
(longitudinal layer)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Submucosa
Is a layer of dense, irregular connective tissue
Surrounds muscularis mucosae
Has large blood vessels and lymphatic vessels
May contain exocrine glands
Secrete buffers and enzymes into digestive tract
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Submucosal Plexus
Also called plexus of Meissner
Innervates the mucosa and submucosa
Contains:
Sensory neurons
Parasympathetic ganglionic neurons
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Muscularis Externa
Is dominated by smooth muscle cells
Are arranged in:
Inner circular layer
Outer longitudinal layer
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Muscularis Externa
Involved in:
Mechanical processing
Movement of materials along digestive tract
Movements coordinated by enteric nervous system
(ENS)
Sensory neurons
Interneurons
Motor neurons
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Muscularis Externa
ENS
Innervated primarily by parasympathetic division of
ANS
Sympathetic postganglionic fibers
The mucosa
The myenteric plexus (plexus of Auerbach)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Serosa
Serous membrane covering muscularis externa
Except in oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, and rectum
Where adventitia, a dense sheath of collagen fibers,
firmly attaches the digestive tract to adjacent
structures


2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
The Movement of Digestive Materials
By muscular layers of digestive tract
Consist of visceral smooth muscle tissue
Along digestive tract
Has rhythmic cycles of activity
Controlled by pacesetter cells
Cells undergo spontaneous depolarization
Triggering wave of contraction through entire
muscular sheet
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Pacesetter Cells
Located in muscularis mucosae and muscularis
externa
Surrounding lumen of digestive tract
Peristalsis
Consists of waves of muscular contractions
Moves a bolus along the length of the digestive tract
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Peristaltic Motion
1. Circular muscles contract behind bolus
While circular muscles ahead of bolus relax
2. Longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus contract
Shortening adjacent segments
3. Wave of contraction in circular muscles
Forces bolus forward
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-4 Peristalsis
Initial State
Contraction of circular muscles behind
bolus
Contraction of longitudinal muscles
ahead of bolus
Contraction in circular muscle layer
forces bolus forward
Contraction
Contraction
Contraction
Longitudinal
muscle
Circular
muscle
From
mouth
To
anus
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Segmentation
Cycles of contraction
Churn and fragment the bolus
Mix contents with intestinal secretions
Does not follow a set pattern
Does not push materials in any one direction
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Control of Digestive Functions
Local Factors
Prostaglandins, histamine, and other chemicals
released into interstitial fluid
May affect adjacent cells within small segment of
digestive tract
Coordinate response to changing conditions
For example, variations in local pH, chemical, or
physical stimuli
Affect only a portion of tract
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Control of Digestive Functions
Neural Mechanisms
Control
Movement of materials along digestive tract
Secretory functions
Motor neurons
Control smooth muscle contraction and glandular
secretion
Located in myenteric plexus
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Neural Mechanisms
Short reflexes
Are responsible for local reflexes
Control small segments of digestive tract
Operate entirely outside of CNS control
Sensory neurons
Motor neurons
Interneurons
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Neural Mechanisms
Long reflexes
Higher level control of digestive and glandular activities
Control large-scale peristaltic waves
Involve interneurons and motor neurons in CNS
May involve parasympathetic motor fibers that synapse
in the myenteric plexus
Glossopharyngeal, vagus, or pelvic nerves
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-1 The Digestive Tract
Hormonal Mechanisms
At least 18 peptide hormones that affect:
Most aspects of digestive function
Activities of other systems
Are produced by enteroendocrine cells in digestive
tract
Reach target organs after distribution in bloodstream
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-5 The Regulation of Digestive Activities
Neural Control Mechanisms
Local Factors
Hormonal Control Mechanisms
Long
reflex
Short
reflex
Stretch receptors,
chemoreceptors
CNS
Myenteric
plexus
Secretory
cells
Enteroendocrine
cells
Hormones
released
Via the
bloodstream
Peristalsis and
segmentation
movements
Buffers, acids,
enzymes released
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Functions of the Oral Cavity
1. Sensory analysis
Of material before swallowing
2. Mechanical processing
Through actions of teeth, tongue, and palatal surfaces
3. Lubrication
Mixing with mucus and salivary gland secretions
4. Limited digestion
Of carbohydrates and lipids
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Oral Mucosa
Lining of oral cavity
Has stratified squamous epithelium
Of cheeks, lips, and inferior surface of tongue
Is relatively thin, nonkeratinized, and delicate
Inferior to tongue is thin and vascular enough to
rapidly absorb lipid-soluble drugs
Cheeks are supported by pads of fat and the
buccinator muscles
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Labia
Also called lips
Anteriorly, the mucosa of each cheek is continuous
with that of the lips
Vestibule
Space between the cheeks (or lips) and the teeth
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Gingivae (Gums)
Ridges of oral mucosa
Surround base of each tooth on alveolar
processes of maxillary bones and mandible
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-6a The Oral Cavity
A sagittal section of the oral cavity
Laryngopharynx
Hyoid bone
Epiglottis
Lingual tonsil
Oropharynx
Palatopharyngeal
arch
Fauces
Palatine tonsil
Uvula
Nasopharynx
Entrance to
auditory tube
Pharyngeal tonsil
Nasal cavity
Hard palate Soft palate
Palatoglossal
arch
Opening of
parotid duct
Dorsum of
tongue
Body of
tongue
Root of
tongue
Upper lip
Cheek
Lower lip
Gingiva
Vestibule
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Figure 24-6b The Oral Cavity
An anterior view of the oral
cavity as seen through the
open mouth
Soft palate
Fauces
Palatoglossal
arch
Palatopharyngeal
arch
Lingual
frenulum
Palatine
tonsil
Gingiva
Vestibule
Tongue
Uvula
Openings of
submandibular ducts
Hard palate
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
The Tongue
Manipulates materials inside mouth
Functions of the tongue
1. Mechanical processing by compression, abrasion,
and distortion
2. Manipulation to assist in chewing and to prepare
material for swallowing
3. Sensory analysis by touch, temperature, and taste
receptors
4. Secretion of mucins and the enzyme lingual lipase
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Salivary Glands
Three pairs secrete into oral cavity
1. Parotid salivary glands
2. Sublingual salivary glands
3. Submandibular salivary glands
Each pair has distinctive cellular organization
And produces saliva with different properties
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Parotid Salivary Glands
Inferior to zygomatic arch
Produce serous secretion
Enzyme salivary amylase (breaks down starches)
Drained by parotid duct
Which empties into vestibule at second molar
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Sublingual Salivary Glands
Covered by mucous membrane of floor of mouth
Produce mucous secretion
Acts as a buffer and lubricant
Sublingual ducts
Either side of lingual frenulum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Submandibular Salivary Glands
In floor of mouth
Within mandibular groove
Secrete buffers, glycoproteins (mucins), and salivary
amylase
Submandibular ducts
Open immediately posterior to teeth
Either side of lingual frenulum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-7a The Salivary Glands
A lateral view, showing the relative
positions of the salivary glands and ducts
on the left side of the head.
Submandibular
salivary gland
Submandibular
duct
Parotid duct
Parotid salivary
gland
Sublingual
salivary gland
Opening of left
submandibular
duct
Openings of
sublingual
ducts
Lingual
frenulum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-7b The Salivary Glands
The submandibular gland secretes a
mixture of mucins, produced by mucous
cells, and enzymes, produced by serous
cells.
Submandibular salivary gland LM 300
Duct
Mucous
cells
Serous
cells
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Saliva
Glands produce 1.01.5 liters of saliva each day
70% by submandibular glands
25% by parotids
5% by sublingual glands
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Saliva
99.4% water
0.6% includes:
Electrolytes (Na
+
, Cl

, and HCO
3

)
Buffers
Glycoproteins (mucins)
Antibodies
Enzymes
Waste products
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Functions of Saliva
Lubricating the mouth
Moistening and lubricating materials in the mouth
Dissolving chemicals that stimulate taste buds and
provide sensory information
Initiating digestion of complex carbohydrates by the
enzyme salivary amylase (ptyalin or alpha-amylase)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Control of Salivary Secretions
By autonomic nervous system
Parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation
Parasympathetic accelerates secretion by all
salivary glands
Salivatory nuclei of medulla oblongata influenced
by:
Other brain stem nuclei
Activities of higher centers
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
The Teeth
Tongue movements pass food across occlusal
surfaces of teeth
Chew (masticate) food
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Dentin
A mineralized matrix similar to that of bone
Does not contain cells
Pulp Cavity
Receives blood vessels and nerves through the root
canal
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Root
Of each tooth sits in a bony socket (alveolus)
A layer of cementum covers dentin of the root
Providing protection and anchoring periodontal ligament
Crown
Exposed portion of tooth
Projects beyond soft tissue of gingiva
Dentin covered by layer of enamel
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Alveolar Processes
Of the maxillae
Form maxillary arcade (upper dental arch)
Of the mandible
Form mandibular arcade (lower dental arch)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-8a Teeth
A diagrammatic section through a
typical adult tooth.
Enamel
Dentin
Pulp cavity
Gingiva
Gingival
sulcus
Cementum
Periodontal
ligament
Root canal
Bone of alveolus
Apical foramen
Branches of alveolar
vessels and nerve
Crown
Neck
Root
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Figure 24-8b Teeth
The adult teeth from the right side of the
upper and lower jaws. Figure 24-9a,b provides
a view of the occlusal surfaces.
Incisors Molars Bicuspids
(premolars)
Cuspids
(canines)
Upper
jaw
Lower
jaw
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Types of Teeth
1. Incisors
2. Cuspids (canines)
3. Bicuspids (premolars)
4. Molars
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Incisors
Blade-shaped teeth
Located at front of mouth
Used for clipping or cutting
Have a single root
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Cuspids (Canines)
Conical
Sharp ridgeline
Pointed tip
Used for tearing or slashing
Have a single root
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Bicuspids (Premolars)
Flattened crowns
Prominent ridges
Used to crush, mash, and grind
Have one or two roots
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Molars
Very large, flat crowns
With prominent ridges
Used for crushing and grinding
Have three or more roots
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Dental Succession
During embryonic development, two sets of teeth
form
Primary dentition, or deciduous teeth
Secondary dentition, or permanent dentition
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Deciduous Teeth
Also called primary teeth, milk teeth, or baby teeth
20 temporary teeth of primary dentition
Five on each side of upper and lower jaws
2 incisors
1 cuspid
2 deciduous molars
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Figure 24-9a Primary and Secondary Dentitions
The primary teeth, with the age
at eruption given in months.
Central incisors (6 mo)
Lateral incisor
(7 mo)
Cuspid (16 mo)
Deciduous 1st
molar (12 mo)
Deciduous 2nd
molar (20 mo)
Deciduous 2nd
molar (24 mo)
Deciduous 1st
molar (14 mo)
Cuspid (18 mo)
Lateral incisor
(9 mo)
Central incisors (7.5 mo)
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Secondary Dentition
Also called permanent dentition
Replaces deciduous teeth
32 permanent teeth
Eight on each side, upper and lower
2 incisors
1 cuspid
5 molars
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-9b Primary and Secondary Dentitions
The adult teeth, with the age at
eruption given in years.
3rd Molar
(1721 yr)
2nd Molar
(1213 yr)
1st Molar
(67 yr)
2nd Premolar
(1012 yr)
1st Premolar
(1011 yr)
Cuspid
(1112 yr)
Central incisors (78 yr)
Maxillary
dental
arcade
Hard palate
Lateral incisor
(89 yr)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-9b Primary and Secondary Dentitions
The adult teeth, with the age at
eruption given in years.
Mandibular
dental
arcade
Central incisors (67 yr)
Lateral incisor (78 yr)
Cuspid (910 yr)
1st Premolar
(1012 yr)
2nd Premolar
(1112 yr)
1st Molar
(67 yr)
2nd Molar
(1113 yr)
3rd Molar
(1721 yr)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-9c Primary and Secondary Dentitions
Maxilla and mandible with unerupted teeth
exposed.
Mandible exposed
to show developing
permanent teeth
First and second
molars
Erupted
deciduous teeth
Maxilla exposed to
show developing
permanent teeth
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-2 The Oral Cavity
Mastication
Also called chewing
Food is forced from oral cavity to vestibule and
back
Crossing and recrossing occlusal surfaces
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24-2 The Oral Cavity
Muscles of Mastication
Close the jaws
Slide or rock lower jaw from side to side
Chewing involves mandibular:
Elevation and depression
Protraction and retraction
Medial and lateral movement
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-3 The Pharynx
The Pharynx (Throat)
A common passageway for solid food, liquids, and air
Regions of the pharynx:
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Food passes through the oropharynx and
laryngopharynx to the esophagus
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-4 The Esophagus
The Esophagus
A hollow muscular tube
About 25 cm (10 in.) long and 2 cm (0.80 in.) wide
Conveys solid food and liquids to the stomach
Begins posterior to cricoid cartilage
Enters abdominopelvic cavity through the
esophageal hiatus
Is innervated by fibers from the esophageal plexus
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-4 The Esophagus
Resting Muscle Tone
In the circular muscle layer in the superior 3 cm
(1.2 in.) of esophagus prevents air from entering
Histology of the Esophagus
Wall of esophagus has three layers
1. Mucosal
2. Submucosal
3. Muscularis
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24-4 The Esophagus
Histology of the Esophagus
Mucosa contains:
Nonkeratinized and stratified squamous epithelium
Mucosa and submucosa form:
Large folds that extend the length of the esophagus
Muscularis mucosae consists of:
Irregular layer of smooth muscle
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-4 The Esophagus
Histology of the Esophagus
Submucosa contains esophageal glands
Which produce mucous secretion
Reduces friction between bolus and esophageal lining
Muscularis externa has:
Usual inner circular and outer longitudinal layers
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Figure 24-10a The Esophagus
A transverse section through an empty
esophagus.
Adventitia
Muscularis
externa
Submucosa
Mucosa
Muscularis
mucosae
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Figure 24-10b The Esophagus
This light micrograph illustrates
the extreme thickness of the
epithelial portion of the
esophageal mucosal layer.
Esophageal mucosa LM 77
Muscularis
mucosae
Lamina
propria
Stratified
squamous
epithelium
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24-4 The Esophagus
Swallowing
Also called deglutition
Can be initiated voluntarily
Proceeds automatically
Is divided into three phases
1. Buccal phase
2. Pharyngeal phase
3. Esophageal phase
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Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process
Buccal Phase
Pharyngeal Phase
Esophageal Phase
Bolus Enters Stomach
Stomach
Lower
esophageal
sphincter
Trachea
Peristalsis
Thoracic
cavity
Tongue
Bolus
Esophagus
Epiglottis
Bolus
Soft palate
Trachea
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Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process
Buccal Phase
Esophagus
Epiglottis
Bolus
Soft palate
Trachea
The buccal phase begins
with the compression of the
bolus against the hard palate.
Subsequent retraction of the
tongue then forces the bolus
into the oropharynx and assists
in the elevation of the soft
palate, thereby sealing off the
nasopharynx. Once the bolus
enters the oropharynx, reflex
responses begin and the bolus
is moved toward the stomach.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process
Pharyngeal Phase
Tongue
Bolus
The pharyngeal phase
begins as the bolus comes into
contact with the palatoglossal
and palatopharyngeal arches
and the posterior pharyngeal
wall. Elevation of the larynx
and folding of the epiglottis
direct the bolus past the closed
glottis. At the same time, the
uvula and soft palate block
passage back to the
nasopharynx.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process
Esophageal Phase
Trachea
Peristalsis
The esophageal phase
begins as the contraction of
pharyngeal muscles forces
the bolus through the
entrance to the esophagus.
Once in the esophagus, the
bolus is pushed toward the
stomach by a peristaltic
wave.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-11 The Swallowing Process
Bolus Enters Stomach
Stomach
Lower
esophageal
sphincter
The approach of the bolus
triggers the opening of the
lower esophageal sphincter.
The bolus then continues
into the stomach.
Thoracic
cavity
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Major Functions of the Stomach
1. Storage of ingested food
2. Mechanical breakdown of ingested food
3. Disruption of chemical bonds in food material by
acid and enzymes
4. Production of intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein required
for absorption of vitamin B
12
in small intestine
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Anatomy of the Stomach
The stomach is shaped like an expanded J
Short lesser curvature forms medial surface
Long greater curvature forms lateral surface
Anterior and posterior surfaces are smoothly rounded
Shape and size vary from individual to individual and
from one meal to the next
Stomach typically extends between levels of
vertebrae T
7
and L
3

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24-5 The Stomach
Regions of the Stomach
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pylorus
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Figure 24-12a The Stomach
The position and external appearance of the
stomach, showing superficial landmarks
Body
Fundus
Cardia
Diaphragm
Spleen
Greater curvature
with greater
omentum attached
Esophagus
Right lobe of liver
Vagus nerve (N X)
Lesser omentum
Lesser curvature
Duyodenum
Pyloric sphincter
Pylorus
Left gastroepiploic
vessels
Greater
omentum
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Figure 24-12b The Stomach
The structure of the stomach wall
Esophagus
Duodenum
Cardia
Longitudinal
muscle layer
Circular
muscle layer
Lesser curvature
(medial surface)
Pyloric
sphincter
Pyloric canal
Pyloric antrum
Pylorus
Fundus
Anterior
surface
Left gastroepiploic
vessels
Body
Oblique muscle layer
overlying mucosa
Rugae
Greater curvature
(lateral surface)
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24-5 The Stomach
Smooth Muscle
Muscularis mucosae and muscularis externa
Contain extra layers of smooth muscle cells
Oblique layer in addition to circular and
longitudinal layers
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24-5 The Stomach
Histology of the Stomach
Simple columnar epithelium lines all portions of
stomach
Epithelium is a secretory sheet
Produces mucus that covers interior surface of stomach
Gastric pits, shallow depressions that open onto the
gastric surface
Mucous cells, at the base, or neck, of each gastric pit,
actively divide, replacing superficial cells
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Gastric Glands
In fundus and body of stomach
Extend deep into underlying lamina propria
Each gastric pit communicates with several gastric
glands
Parietal cells
Chief cells
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Figure 24-13a The Stomach Lining
Stomach wall
Layers of the Stomach Wall
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis externa
Serosa
Longtudinal muscle
Circular muscle
Oblique muscle
Muscularis mucosae
Lamina propria
Mucous epithelium
Gastric pit (opening
to gastric gland)
Myenteric
plexus
Lymphatic
vessel
Artery
and
vein
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Figure 24-13b The Stomach Lining
Gastric gland
Cells of
Gastric
Glands
Gastric
gland
Smooth
muscle
cell
Chief
cells
G cell
Parietal
cells
Gastric
pit
Neck
Mucous
cells
Lamina
propria
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24-5 The Stomach
Parietal Cells
Secrete intrinsic factor and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Chief Cells
Are most abundant near base of gastric gland
Secrete pepsinogen (inactive proenzyme)
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Figure 24-14 The Secretion of Hydrochloric Acid
KEY
Diffusion
Carrier-mediated
transport
Active transport
Countertransport
Alkaline
tide
Interstitial
fluid
To
bloodstream
Lumen of
gastric
gland
Carbonid
anhydrase
Parietal cell
The hydrogen ions are
actively transported into the
lumen of the gastric gland.
The chloride ions then diffuse
across the cell and exit through
open chloride channels into the
lumen of the gastric gland.
A countertransport mechanism
ejects the bicarbonate ions into
the interstitial fluid and imports
chloride ions into the cell.
Hydrogen ions (H

) are generated
inside a parietal cell as the enzyme
carbonic anhydrase converts CO
2

and H
2
O to carbonic acid (H
2
CO
3
),
which then dissociates.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Pepsinogen
Is converted by HCl in the gastric lumen
To pepsin (active proteolytic enzyme)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Pyloric Glands
Located in the pylorus
Produce mucous secretion
Scattered with enteroendocrine cells
G cells produce gastrin
D cells release somatostatin, a hormone that
inhibits release of gastrin
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Regulation of Gastric Activity
Production of acid and enzymes by the gastric mucosa can be:
Controlled by the CNS
Regulated by short reflexes of ENS
Regulated by hormones of digestive tract
Three phases of gastric control
1. Cephalic phase
2. Gastric phase
3. Intestinal phase
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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity
CEPHALIC PHASE
Central nervous system
Food
Vagus nerve (N X)
Sight, smell, taste,
or thoughts of food
Gastrin
Mucous
cells
Chief
cells
Parietal
cells
G cells
Mucus
Pepsinogen
HCl
Stimulation
KEY
Submucosal
plexus
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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity
GASTRIC PHASE
Submucosal and
myenteric plexuses
Stretch
receptors
Chemoreceptors
Gastrin
Mucous
cells
Chief
cells
Parietal
cells
G cells
Mucus
Pepsinogen
HCl
Distension
Elevated pH
Mixing
waves
Partly
digested
peptides
via
bloodstream
ATLAS: Plate 50c
Neural Response
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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity
INTESTINAL PHASE
Inhibition
KEY
Decreased pH
Presence of
lipids and
carbohydrates
Peristalsis
Secretin
GIP
CCK
Duodenal
stretch and
chemoreceptors
via bloodstream
Enterogastric
reflex
Myenteric
plexus
Chief
cells
Parietal
cells
Neural Responses
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
Stomach performs preliminary digestion of proteins by
pepsin
Some digestion of carbohydrates (by salivary
amylase)
Lipids (by lingual lipase)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-5 The Stomach
Digestion and Absorption in the Stomach
Stomach contents
Become more fluid
pH approaches 2.0
Pepsin activity increases
Protein disassembly begins
Although digestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients
are not absorbed there
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Small Intestine
The Small Intestine
Plays key role in digestion and absorption of
nutrients
90% of nutrient absorption occurs in the small
intestine
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24-6 The Small Intestine
The Duodenum
The segment of small intestine closest to stomach
25 cm (10 in.) long
Mixing bowl that receives chyme from stomach and
digestive secretions from pancreas and liver
Functions of the duodenum:
To receive chyme from stomach
To neutralize acids before they can damage the absorptive
surfaces of the small intestine
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Small Intestine
The Jejunum
Is the middle segment of small intestine
2.5 meters (8.2 ft) long
Is the location of most:
Chemical digestion
Nutrient absorption
Has few plicae circulares
Small villi
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24-6 The Small Intestine
The Ileum
The final segment of small intestine
3.5 meters (11.48 ft) long
Ends at the ileocecal valve
A sphincter that controls flow of material from the
ileum into the cecum of the large intestine
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Figure 24-16a Segments of the Intestine
Regions of the
Small Intestine
The positions of the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum in the abdominopelvic cavity
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Large
intestine
Rectum
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Histology of the Small Intestine
Plicae circulares
Transverse folds in intestinal lining
Are permanent features
Do not disappear when small intestine fills
Intestinal villi
A series of fingerlike projections in mucosa of small
intestine
Covered by simple columnar epithelium
Covered with microvilli
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Figure 24-16b Segments of the Intestine
A representative view of the
jejunum
Plicae
circulares
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Histology of the Small Intestine
Intestinal glands (Crypts of Lieberkhn)
Mucous cells between columnar epithelial cells
Eject mucins onto intestinal surfaces
Openings from intestinal glands
To intestinal lumen at bases of villi
Entrances for brush border enzymes
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Figure 24-17a The Intestinal Wall
A single plica circulares
and multiple villi
Plica circulares
Villi
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Figure 24-17b The Intestinal Wall
The organization of the intestinal wall
Submucosal
artery and vein
Lymphatic
vessel
Submucosal
plexus
Circular layer
of smooth muscle
Myenteric plexus
Longitudinal layer
of smooth muscle
Lacteal
Lymphoid
nodule
Intestinal
crypt
Villi
Mucosa
Submucosa
Serosa
Muscularis
mucosae
Muscularis
externa
Layers of the
Small Intestine
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Figure 24-17c The Intestinal Wall
Internal structures in a single villus, showing
the capillary and lymphatic supplies
Columnar
epithelial cell
Mucous cell
Lacteal
Nerve
Capillary
network
Lamina propria
Lymphatic
vessel
Smooth
muscle
cell
Arteriole Venule
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Figure 24-17d The Intestinal Wall
A villus in
sectional
view
Capillaries
Mucous cells
Lacteal
Brush border
Tip of villus LM 250
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Glands
Brush border enzymes
Integral membrane proteins
On surfaces of intestinal microvilli
Break down materials in contact with brush border
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Glands
Enteropeptidase
A brush border enzyme
Activates pancreatic proenzyme trypsinogen
Enteroendocrine cells
Produce intestinal hormones such as gastrin,
cholecystokinin, and secretin
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Glands
Duodenal glands
Also called submucosal glands or Brunners glands
Produce copious quantities of mucus
When chyme arrives from stomach
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24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Secretions
Watery intestinal juice
1.8 liters per day enter intestinal lumen
Moisten chyme
Assist in buffering acids
Keep digestive enzymes and products of digestion in
solution
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Small Intestine
Intestinal Movements
Chyme arrives in duodenum
Weak peristaltic contractions move it slowly toward
jejunum
Myenteric reflexes
Not under CNS control
Parasympathetic stimulation accelerates local
peristalsis and segmentation
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24-6 The Small Intestine
The Gastroenteric Reflex
Stimulates motility and secretion
Along entire small intestine
The Gastroileal Reflex
Triggers relaxation of ileocecal valve
Allows materials to pass from small intestine into
large intestine
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Figure 24-15 Regulation of Gastric Activity
CENTRAL REFLEXES
Central Gastric
Reflexes
The gastroenteric
reflex stimulates
motility and secretion
along the entire small
intestine.
The ileocecal valve
controls the passage
of materials into the
large intestine.
The gastroileal
(gas-tro-IL-e-al) reflex
triggers the opening
of the ileocecal valve,
allowing materials to
pass from the small
intestine into the large
intestine.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Pancreas
The Pancreas
Lies posterior to stomach
From duodenum toward spleen
Is bound to posterior wall of abdominal cavity
Is wrapped in thin, connective tissue capsule
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24-6 The Pancreas
Regions of the Pancreas
Head
Broad
In loop of duodenum
Body
Slender
Extends toward spleen
Tail
Short and rounded
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24-6 The Pancreas
Histological Organization
Lobules of the pancreas
Are separated by connective tissue partitions (septa)
Contain blood vessels and tributaries of pancreatic
ducts
In each lobule:
Ducts branch repeatedly
End in blind pockets (pancreatic acini)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Pancreas
Histological Organization
Pancreatic acini
Blind pockets
Are lined with simple cuboidal epithelium
Contain scattered pancreatic islets
Pancreatic islets
Endocrine tissues of pancreas
Scattered (1% of pancreatic cells)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-18a The Pancreas
The gross anatomy of the pancreas. The head of the
pancreas is tucked in to a C-shaped curve of the
duodenum that begins at the pylorus of the stomach.
Tail of
pancreas
Body of
pancreas
Head of
pancreas
Pancreatic
duct
Lobules Common
bile duct
Duodenal
papilla
Accessory
pancreatic
duct
Duodenum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-18b The Pancreas
Diagram of the cellular
organization of the
pancreas
Pancreatic duct
Connective tissue septum
Exocrine cells in
pancreatic acini
Endocrine cells in
pancreatic islet
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-18c The Pancreas
Light micrograph of the
cellular organization of
the pancreas
Duct
Pancreatic
acini
(exocrine)
Pancreatic islet
(endocrine)
LM 75 Pancreas
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Pancreas
Functions of the Pancreas
Endocrine cells of the pancreatic islets
Secrete insulin and glucagon into bloodstream
Exocrine cells
Acinar cells and epithelial cells of duct system secrete
pancreatic juice
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24-6 The Pancreas
Physiology of the Pancreas
1000 mL (1 qt) pancreatic juice per day
Controlled by hormones from duodenum
Contain pancreatic enzymes
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24-6 The Pancreas
Pancreatic Enzymes
Include:
Pancreatic alpha-amylase
Pancreatic lipase
Nucleases
Proteolytic enzymes
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Pancreas
Pancreatic Alpha-Amylase
A carbohydrase
Breaks down starches
Similar to salivary amylase
Pancreatic Lipase
Breaks down complex lipids
Releases products (e.g., fatty acids) that are easily
absorbed
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Pancreas
Nucleases
Break down nucleic acids
Proteolytic Enzymes
Break certain proteins apart
Proteases break large protein complexes
Peptidases break small peptides into amino acids
70% of all pancreatic enzyme production
Secreted as inactive proenzymes
Activated after reaching small intestine
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
The Liver
Is the largest visceral organ (1.5 kg; 3.3 lb)
Lies in right hypochondriac and epigastric regions
Extends to left hypochondriac and umbilical regions
Performs essential metabolic and synthetic functions
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24-6 The Liver
Anatomy of the Liver
Wrapped in tough fibrous capsule
Covered by visceral peritoneum
Divided into lobes
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Figure 24-19a The Anatomy of the Liver
Falciform ligament
Porta hepatis
Right lobe of liver
Caudate lobe
of liver
Cut edge
of diaphragm
Pleural cavity
Inferior vena cava
Left lobe
of liver
Sternum
Stomach
Lesser
omentum
Aorta
Spleen
A horizontal section through the superior abdomen (diagrammatic view)
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Figure 24-19b The Anatomy of the Liver
The anterior surface of the liver
Gallbladder
Round ligament
Falciform
ligament
Coronary ligament
Right lobe
Left lobe
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Figure 24-19c The Anatomy of the Liver
The posterior surface of the liver
Coronary ligament
Right lobe
Left lobe
Caudate lobe
Quadrate lobe
Common bile duct
Left hepatic vein
Inferior vena cava
Hepatic portal vein
Hepatic artery proper
Gallbladder
Porta hepatis
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Hepatic Blood Supply
1/3 of blood supply
Arterial blood from hepatic artery proper
2/3 venous blood from hepatic portal vein, originating at:
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Most of large intestine
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Histological Organization of the Liver
Liver lobules
The basic functional units of the liver
Each lobe is divided by connective tissue
About 100,000 liver lobules
1 mm diameter each
Hexagonal in cross section
With six portal areas (portal triads)
One at each corner of lobule
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24-6 The Liver
A Portal Area
Contains three structures
1. Branch of hepatic portal vein
2. Branch of hepatic artery proper
3. Small branch of bile duct
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Figure 24-20a Liver Histology
A diagrammatic view
of liver structure,
showing relationships
among lobules
Interlobular
septum
Bile
duct
Branch of
hepatic portal vein
Portal
area
Bile
ductules
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-20b Liver Histology
A single liver lobule and its
cellular components
Sinusoid
Hepatocytes
Bile duct
Branch of hepatic
artery proper
Central
vein
Kupffer
cells
Bile
canaliculi
Branch of
hepatic
portal vein
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-20c Liver Histology
A sectional view showing the vessels
and ducts within a portal area
Portal area LM 350
Bile duct
Sinusoids
Hepatocytes
Branch of
hepatic portal
vein (containing
blood)
Branch of
hepatic artery
proper
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Hepatocytes
Adjust circulating levels of nutrients
Through selective absorption and secretion
In a liver lobule form a series of irregular plates
arranged like wheel spokes

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Hepatocytes
Many Kupffer cells (stellate reticuloendothelial cells)
are located in sinusoidal lining
As blood flows through sinusoids:
Hepatocytes absorb solutes from plasma and
secrete materials such as plasma proteins
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
The Bile Duct System
Liver secretes bile fluid
Into a network of narrow channels (bile canaliculi)
Between opposing membranes of adjacent liver
cells
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Right and Left Hepatic Ducts
Collect bile from all bile ducts of liver lobes
Unite to form common hepatic duct that leaves the
liver
Bile Flow
From common hepatic duct to either:
The common bile duct, which empties into duodenal
ampulla
The cystic duct, which leads to gallbladder
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
The Common Bile Duct
Is formed by union of:
Cystic duct
Common hepatic duct
Passes within the lesser omentum toward stomach
Penetrates wall of duodenum
Meets pancreatic duct at duodenal ampulla
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-21a The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts
A view of the inferior surface of the
liver, showing the position of the
gallbladder and ducts that transport
bile from the liver to the gallbladder
and duodenum. A portion of the
lesser omentum has been cut away.
Round ligament
Right hepatic duct
Cystic duct
Fundus
Body
Neck
Gallbladder
Common bile
duct
Liver
Duodenum
Pancreas
Stomach
Right gastric artery
Common hepatic
artery
Hepatic portal vein
Cut edge of lesser
omentum
Common hepatic duct
Left hepatic artery
Left hepatic duct
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-21b The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts
A sectional view through a portion of the
duodenal wall, showing the duodenal
ampulla and related structures
Common
bile duct
Pancreatic
duct
Hepatopancreatic
sphincter
Duodenal
ampulla
Duodenal
papilla
Intestinal lumen
Pancreas
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-21c The Anatomy and Physiology of the Gallbladder and Bile Ducts
Physiology of the gallbladder
In the lumen of the
digestive tract, bile
salts break the lipid
droplets apart by
emulsification.
Duodenum
Lipid
droplet
CCK
As it remains in the
gallbladder, bile
becomes more
concentrated.
Liver
The liver secretes
bile continuously
roughly 1 liter
per day.
The release of CCK by the
duodenum triggers dilation of the
hepatopancreatic sphincter and
contraction of the gallbladder. This
ejects bile into the duodenum
through the duodenal ampulla.
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
The Physiology of the Liver
1. Metabolic regulation
2. Hematological regulation
3. Bile production
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Metabolic Regulation
The liver regulates:
1. Composition of circulating blood
2. Nutrient metabolism
3. Waste product removal
4. Nutrient storage
5. Drug inactivation
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Composition of Circulating Blood
All blood leaving absorptive surfaces of digestive tract
Enters hepatic portal system
Flows into the liver
Liver cells extract nutrients or toxins from blood
Before they reach systemic circulation through hepatic
veins
Liver removes and stores excess nutrients
Corrects nutrient deficiencies by mobilizing stored
reserves or performing synthetic activities
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Metabolic Activities of the Liver
Carbohydrate metabolism
Lipid metabolism
Amino acid metabolism
Waste product removal
Vitamin storage
Mineral storage
Drug inactivation
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Hematological Regulation
Largest blood reservoir in the body
Receives 25% of cardiac output

2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
Functions of Hematological Regulation
Phagocytosis and antigen presentation
Synthesis of plasma proteins
Removal of circulating hormones
Removal of antibodies
Removal or storage of toxins
Synthesis and secretion of bile
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Liver
The Functions of Bile
Dietary lipids are not water soluble
Mechanical processing in stomach creates large
drops containing lipids
Pancreatic lipase is not lipid soluble
Interacts only at surface of lipid droplet
Bile salts break droplets apart (emulsification)
Increases surface area exposed to enzymatic attack
Creates tiny emulsion droplets coated with bile salts
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Gallbladder
The Gallbladder
Is a hollow, pear-shaped, muscular sac
Stores and concentrates bile prior to excretion into
small intestine
Is located in the fossa on the posterior surface of
the livers right lobe
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24-6 The Gallbladder
Regions of the Gallbladder
1. Fundus
2. Body
3. Neck
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24-6 The Gallbladder
The Cystic Duct
Extends from gallbladder
Union with common hepatic duct forms common
bile duct
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Gallbladder
Physiology of the Gallbladder
Stores bile
Releases bile into duodenum, but only under stimulation
of intestinal hormone cholecystokinin (CCK)
CCK
Hepatopancreatic sphincter remains closed
Bile exiting liver in common hepatic duct cannot flow
through common bile duct into duodenum
Bile enters cystic duct and is stored in gallbladder
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 The Gallbladder
Physiology of the Gallbladder
Full gallbladder contains 4070 mL bile
Bile composition gradually changes in gallbladder
Water is absorbed
Bile salts and solutes become concentrated
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Neural and Hormonal Mechanisms
Coordinate activities of digestive glands
Regulatory mechanisms center around duodenum
Where acids are neutralized and enzymes added
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Neural Mechanisms of the CNS
Prepare digestive tract for activity (parasympathetic
innervation)
Inhibit gastrointestinal activity (sympathetic
innervation)
Coordinate movement of materials along digestive
tract (the enterogastric, gastroenteric, and gastroileal
reflexes)
Motor neuron synapses in digestive tract release
neurotransmitters
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24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Intestinal Hormones
Intestinal tract secretes peptide hormones with
multiple effects
In several regions of digestive tract
In accessory glandular organs
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24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Hormones of Duodenal Enteroendocrine Cells
Coordinate digestive functions
Gastrin
Secretin
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)
Enterocrinin
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Gastrin
Is secreted by G cells in duodenum
When exposed to incompletely digested proteins
Promotes increased stomach motility
Stimulates acids and enzyme production
Secretin
Is released when chyme arrives in duodenum
Increases secretion of bile and buffers by liver and
pancreas
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)
Is secreted when fats and carbohydrates enter small intestine
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Is secreted in duodenum
When chyme contains lipids and partially digested
proteins
Accelerates pancreatic production and secretion of digestive
enzymes
Relaxes hepatopancreatic sphincter and gallbladder
Ejecting bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)
Stimulates secretion of intestinal glands
Dilates regional capillaries
Inhibits acid production in stomach
Enterocrinin
Is released when chyme enters small intestine
Stimulates mucin production by submucosal glands of
duodenum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-23 The Activities of Major Digestive Tract Hormones
Hormone Action
Ingested food
Food in
stomach
Chyme in
duodenum
Material
arrives in
jejunum
Secretin
and CCK
VIP
GIP
Gastrin
KEY
stimulates
inhibits
Acid production by
parietal cells
Stimulation of gastric
motility; mixing waves
increase in intensity
Release of insulin
from pancreas
Release of pancreatic
enzymes and buffers
Bile secretion and
ejection of bile from
gallbladder
Dilation of intestinal
capillaries
facilitates
facilitates
Nutrient absorption
NUTRIENT
UTILIZATION
BY ALL TISSUES
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24-6 Coordination of Secretion and Absorption
Intestinal Absorption
It takes about 5 hours for materials
to pass from duodenum to end of ileum
Movements of the mucosa increase absorptive
effectiveness
Stir and mix intestinal contents
Constantly change environment around epithelial cells
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
The Large Intestine
Is horseshoe shaped
Extends from end of ileum to anus
Lies inferior to stomach and liver
Frames the small intestine
Also called large bowel
Is about 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) long and 7.5 cm (3 in.) wide
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Functions of the Large Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Compaction of intestinal contents into feces
Absorption of important vitamins produced by bacteria
Storage of fecal material prior to defecation
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Parts of the Large Intestine
1. Cecum
The pouchlike first portion
2. Colon
The largest portion
3. Rectum
The last 15 cm (6 in.) of digestive tract
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24-7 The Large Intestine
The Cecum
Is an expanded pouch
Receives material arriving from the ileum
Stores materials and begins compaction

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24-7 The Large Intestine
Appendix
Also called vermiform appendix
Is a slender, hollow appendage about 9 cm
(3.6 in.) long
Is dominated by lymphoid nodules (a
lymphoid organ)
Is attached to posteromedial surface of cecum
Mesoappendix connects appendix to ileum and cecum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
The Colon
Has a larger diameter and thinner wall than small
intestine
The wall of the colon
Forms a series of pouches (haustra)
Haustra permit expansion and elongation of colon
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Colon Muscles
Three longitudinal bands of smooth muscle
(taeniae coli)
Run along outer surfaces of colon
Deep to the serosa
Similar to outer layer of muscularis externa
Muscle tone in taeniae coli creates the haustra
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Serosa of the Colon
Contains numerous teardrop-shaped sacs of fat
Fatty appendices or epiploic appendages
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Four Regions of the Colon
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Ascending Colon
Begins at superior border of cecum
Ascends along right lateral and posterior wall of
peritoneal cavity
To inferior surface of the liver and bends at right colic
flexure (hepatic flexure)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Transverse Colon
Crosses abdomen from right to left; turns at left colic
flexure (splenic flexure)
Is supported by transverse mesocolon
Is separated from anterior abdominal wall by greater
omentum
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Descending Colon
Proceeds inferiorly along left side to the iliac fossa
(inner surface of left ilium)
Is retroperitoneal, firmly attached to abdominal wall
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Sigmoid Colon
Is an S-shaped segment, about 15 cm (6 in.) long
Starts at sigmoid flexure
Lies posterior to urinary bladder
Is suspended from sigmoid mesocolon
Empties into rectum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Blood Supply of the Large Intestine
Receives blood from tributaries of:
Superior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric arteries
Venous blood is collected from:
Superior mesenteric and inferior mesenteric veins
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-24a The Large Intestine
The gross
anatomy and
regions of the
large intestine
Ileocecal valve
Cecum
Appendix
Ileum
Rectum
Rectal
artery
Intestinal arteries
and veins
Fatty appendices
ASCENDING
COLON
TRANSVERSE
COLON
Right colic
artery and vein
Middle colic
artery and vein
Right colic
(hepatic)
flexure
Superior
mesenteric vein
Inferior vena cava
Hepatic portal vein
Aorta Splenic vein
Superior mesenteric artery
Inferior mesenteric vein
Left colic
(splenic)
flexure
Greater
omentum (cut)
DESCENDING
COLON
Left colic vein
Inferior
mesenteric
artery
Left colic artery
Haustra
Taenia coli
Sigmoid arteries
and veins
SIGMOID COLON
Sigmoid flexure
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24-7 The Large Intestine
The Rectum
Forms last 15 cm (6 in.) of digestive tract
Is an expandable organ for temporary storage of feces
Movement of fecal material into rectum triggers urge
to defecate
The Anal Canal
Is the last portion of the rectum
Contains small longitudinal folds called anal columns
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Anus
Also called anal orifice
Is exit of the anal canal
Has keratinized epidermis like skin
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Anal Sphincters
Internal anal sphincter
Circular muscle layer of muscularis externa
Has smooth muscle cells, not under voluntary control
External anal sphincter
Encircles distal portion of anal canal
A ring of skeletal muscle fibers, under voluntary control
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Figure 24-24b The Large Intestine
The cecum and appendix
Ileocecal
valve
Cecum
(cut open)
Appendix
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Figure 24-24c The Large Intestine
The rectum and anus
Anal canal
Anal columns
Anus
External anal
sphincter
Internal anal
sphincter
Rectum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Histology of the Large Intestine
Lacks villi
Abundance of mucous cells
Presence of distinctive intestinal glands
Are deeper than glands of small intestine
Are dominated by mucous cells
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Histology of the Large Intestine
Does not produce enzymes
Provides lubrication for fecal material
Large lymphoid nodules are scattered throughout the
lamina propria and submucosa
The longitudinal layer of the muscularis externa is
reduced to the muscular bands of taeniae coli
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Figure 24-25a The Mucosa and Glands of the Colon
Serosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
mucosae
Intestinal
crypt
Goblet cells
Simple
columnar
epithelium
Taenia coli
Fatty appendices
Haustrum
Circular
layer
Longitudinal
layer
(taenia coli)
Muscularis externa
Aggregated
lymphoid
nodule
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Figure 24-25b The Mucosa and Glands of the Colon
The colon
LM 114
Serosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
mucosae
Intestinal
crypt
Goblet cells
Simple
columnar
epithelium
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Physiology of the Large Intestine
Less than 10% of nutrient absorption occurs in large
intestine
Prepares fecal material for ejection from the body
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Absorption in the Large Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Reabsorption of bile salts
In the cecum
Transported in blood to liver
Absorption of vitamins produced by bacteria
Absorption of organic wastes
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Vitamins
Are organic molecules
Important as cofactors or coenzymes in metabolism
Normal bacteria in colon make three vitamins that
supplement diet
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Three Vitamins Produced in the Large Intestine
1. Vitamin K (fat soluble)
Required by liver for synthesizing four clotting factors,
including prothrombin
2. Biotin (water soluble)
Important in glucose metabolism
3. Vitamin B
5
(pantothenic acid)

(water soluble)

Required in manufacture of steroid hormones and
some neurotransmitters
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria convert bilirubin to urobilinogens and
stercobilinogens
Urobilinogens absorbed into bloodstream are excreted
in urine
Urobilinogens and stercobilinogens in colon convert to
urobilins and stercobilins by exposure to oxygen
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria break down peptides in feces and generate:
1. Ammonia
As soluble ammonium ions
2. Indole and skatole
Nitrogen compounds responsible for odor of feces
3. Hydrogen sulfide
Gas that produces rotten egg odor
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24-7 The Large Intestine
Organic Wastes
Bacteria feed on indigestible carbohydrates
(complex polysaccharides)
Produce flatus, or intestinal gas, in large intestine
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Movements of the Large Intestine
Gastroileal and gastroenteric reflexes
Move materials into cecum while you eat
Movement from cecum to transverse colon is very
slow, allowing hours for water absorption
Peristaltic waves move material along length of colon
Segmentation movements (haustral churning) mix
contents of adjacent haustra
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Movements of the Large Intestine
Movement from transverse colon through rest of large
intestine results from powerful peristaltic contractions
(mass movements)
Stimulus is distension of stomach and duodenum;
relayed over intestinal nerve plexuses
Distension of the rectal wall triggers defecation reflex
Two positive feedback loops
Both loops triggered by stretch receptors in rectum
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Two Positive Feedback Loops
1. Short reflex
Triggers peristaltic contractions in rectum
2. Long reflex
Coordinated by sacral parasympathetic system
Stimulates mass movements
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Rectal Stretch Receptors
Also trigger two reflexes important to voluntary control
of defecation
A long reflex
Mediated by parasympathetic innervation in pelvic
nerves
Causes relaxation of internal anal sphincter
A somatic reflex
Motor commands carried by pudendal nerves
Stimulates contraction of external anal sphincter
(skeletal muscle)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-26 The Defecation Reflex
Long Reflex
Short Reflex
Start
DISTENSION
OF RECTUM
The first loop is a short
reflex that triggers a
series of peristaltic
contractions in the
rectum that move feces
toward the anus.
Stimulation of
stretch receptors
Increased local
peristalsis
Stimulation of myenteric
plexus in sigmoid colon
and rectum
Stimulation of
parasympathetic
motor neurons in
sacral spinal cord
Stimulation of somatic
motor neurons
Increased peristalsis
throughout large
intestine
KEY
stimulates
inhibits
The long reflex is coordinated
by the sacral parasympathetic
system. This reflex stimulates
mass movements that push
feces toward the rectum from
the descending colon and
sigmoid colon.
Relaxation of internal
anal sphincter; feces
move into anal canal
Involuntary contraction
of external anal
sphincter
If external sphincter
is voluntarily relaxed,
DEFECATION OCCURS
Voluntary relaxation of the
external sphincter can override
the contraction directed by
somatic motor neurons (L2a).
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-7 The Large Intestine
Elimination of Feces
Requires relaxation of internal and external anal
sphincters
Reflexes open internal sphincter, close external
sphincter
Opening external sphincter requires conscious effort
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24-8 Digestion
Nutrients
A balanced diet contains:
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
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24-8 Digestion
The Processing and Absorption of Nutrients
Breaks down physical structure of food
Disassembles component molecules
Molecules released into bloodstream are:
Absorbed by cells
Broken down to provide energy for ATP synthesis
Or used to synthesize carbohydrates, proteins, and
lipids
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Are secreted by:
Salivary glands
Tongue
Stomach
Pancreas
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Break molecular bonds in large organic molecules
Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
In a process called hydrolysis
Are divided into classes by targets
Carbohydrases break bonds between simple sugars
Proteases break bonds between amino acids
Lipases separate fatty acids from glycerides
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Digestive Enzymes
Brush border enzymes break nucleotides into:
Sugars
Phosphates
Nitrogenous bases
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Table 24-1 Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-27 Chemical Events in Digestion
REGION
and Hormonal Controls
ORAL CAVITY
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE
INTESTINAL
MUCOSA
Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Hormone: Gastrin
Source: G cells of stomach
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl
Stimulus: Arrival of chyme
in duodenum
Hormone: CCK
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar-
boxypeptidase, proelastase,
trypsinogen, Enteropeptidase
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
Cell body
ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM
Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.
Monosaccharides
Capillary
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION
Monosaccharides
Lactase
Disaccharides Trisaccharides
Pancreatic
alpha-amylase
Disaccharides Trisaccharides
Salivary
amylase
Maltase, Sucrase
Brush border
CARBOHYDRATES
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Table 24-1 Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-27 Chemical Events in Digestion
REGION
and Hormonal Controls
ORAL CAVITY
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE
INTESTINAL
MUCOSA
Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Hormone: Gastrin
Source: G cells of stomach
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl
Stimulus: Arrival of chyme
in duodenum
Hormone: CCK
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar-
boxypeptidase, proelastase,
trypsinogen, Enteropeptidase
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
Cell body
ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM
Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.
Brush border
Chylomicrons
Lacteal
EXOCYTOSIS
Chylomicrons
Triglycerides
Monoglycerides,
Fatty acids
DIFFUSION
Monoglycerides,
Fatty acids in
micelles
Bile salts
and
pancreatic
lipase
Lingual
lipase
LIPIDS
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Table 24-1 Digestive Enzymes and Their Functions
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-27 Chemical Events in Digestion
REGION
and Hormonal Controls
ORAL CAVITY
ESOPHAGUS
STOMACH
SMALL INTESTINE
INTESTINAL
MUCOSA
Stimulus: Anticipation or
arrival of food
Hormone: Gastrin
Source: G cells of stomach
Proenzyme released:
Pepsinogen by chief cells,
activated to pepsin by HCl
Stimulus: Arrival of chyme
in duodenum
Hormone: CCK
Proenzymes released:
Chymotrypsinogen, procar-
boxypeptidase, proelastase,
trypsinogen, Enteropeptidase
activates trypsin, which
activates other enzymes
Enzymes released: Pancreatic
amylase, pancreatic lipase,
nuclease, enteropeptidase
Cell body
ROUTE TO BLOODSTREAM
Carbohydrates and amino acids
are absorbed and transported by
intestinal capillaries. Lipids form
chylomicrons that diffuse into
lacteals and are delivered to the left
subclavian vein by the thoracic duct.
Brush border
Amino acids
Capillary
Amino acids
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT
FACILITATED
DIFFUSION AND
COTRANSPORT
Dipeptidases
Short peptides,
Amino acids
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Elastase
Carboxypeptidase
Polypeptides
Pepsin
PROTEINS
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Water Absorption
Cells cannot actively absorb or secrete water
All movement of water across lining of digestive
tract:
Involves passive water flow down osmotic gradients
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-28 Digestive Secretion and Absorption of Water
Dietary Input
Water
Reabsorption
Digestive
Secretions
Food and drink
2000 mL
Saliva
1500 mL
Gastric secretions
1500 mL
Small intestine
reabsorbs
7800 mL
5000 mL
9000 mL
1200 mL
Liver (bile) 1000 mL
Pancreas (pancreatic
juice) 1000 mL
Intestinal
secretions
2000 mL
Colonic mucous
secretions
200 mL
1400
mL
Colon reabsorbs
1250 mL
150 mL lost
in feces
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Ion Absorption
Osmosis does not distinguish among solutes
Determined only by total concentration of solutes
To maintain homeostasis:
Concentrations of specific ions must be regulated
Sodium ion absorption
Rate increased by aldosterone (steroid hormone
from adrenal cortex)
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Ion Absorption
Calcium ion absorption
Involves active transport at epithelial surface
Rate increased by parathyroid hormone (PTH) and
calcitriol
Potassium ion concentration increases:
As other solutes move out of lumen
Other ions diffuse into epithelial cells along
concentration gradient
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Ion Absorption
Cation absorption (magnesium, iron)
Involves specific carrier proteins
Cell must use ATP to transport ions to interstitial fluid
Anions (chloride, iodide, bicarbonate, and nitrate)
Are absorbed by diffusion or carrier-mediated transport
Phosphate and sulfate ions
Enter epithelial cells by active transport
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-8 Digestion
Vitamins
Are organic compounds required in very small
quantities
Are divided into two major groups
1. Fat-soluble vitamins
2. Water-soluble vitamins
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Table 24-2 The Absorption of Ions and Vitamins
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-9 Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
Age-Related Changes
Division of epithelial stem cells declines
Digestive epithelium becomes more susceptible to damage
by abrasion, acids, or enzymes
Smooth muscle tone and general motility decrease
Peristaltic contractions become weaker
Cumulative damage from toxins (alcohol, other
chemicals)
Absorbed by digestive tract and transported to liver for
processing
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
24-9 Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
Age-Related Changes
Rates of colon cancer and stomach cancer rise with
age
Oral and pharyngeal cancers common among elderly
smokers
Decline in olfactory and gustatory sensitivities
Leads to dietary changes that affect entire body
2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 24-29 System Integrator: The Digestive System
Provides vitamin D3 needed for the
absorption of calcium and
phosphorus
Body System Digestive System Digestive System Body System
S Y S T E M I N T E G R A T O R
Skull, ribs, vertebrae, and pelvic
girdle support and protect parts of
digestive tract; teeth are important in
mechanical processing of food
Protects and supports digestive
organs in abdominal cavity; controls
entrances and exits of digestive tract
ANS regulates movement and secretion;
reflexes coordinate passage of materials along
tract; control over skeletal muscles regulates
ingestion and defecation; hypoothalamic
centers control hungar, satiation, and feeding
Epinephrine and norepinephrine
stimulate constriction of sphincters
and depress digestive activity;
hormones coordinate activity along
digestive tract
Distributes hormones of the
digestive tract; carries nutrients,
water, and ions from sites of
absorption; delivers nutrients
and toxins to liver
Tonsils and other lymphoid nodules
defend against infection and toxins
absorbed from the digestive tract;
lymphatic vessels carry absorbed
lipids to venous system
Increased thoracic and abdominal
pressure through contraction of
respiratory muscles can assist in
defecation
The DIGESTIVE System
For all systems, the digestive system
absorbs organic substrates, vitamins,
ions, and water required by all cells.
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Provides lipids for storage by
adipocytes in subcutaneous layer
Absorbs calcium and phosphate ions
for incorporation into bone matrix;
provides lipids for storage in yellow
marrow
Liver regulates blood glucose and
fatty acid levels, metabolizes lactic
acid from active muscles
Provides substrates essential for
neurotransmitter synthesis
Provides nutrients and substrates to
endocrine cells; endocrine cells of
pancreas secrete insulin and
glucagon; liver produces
angiotensinogen
Absorbs fluid to maintain normal
blood volume; absorbs vitamin K;
liver excretes heme (as bilirubin),
synthesizes coagulation
proteins
Secretions of digestive tract
(acids and enzymes) provide
innate defense against
pathogens
Pressure of digestive organs against
the diaphragm can assist in
exhalation and limit inhalation