Database Systems

Introduction to Transaction
Processing Concepts and
Theory


Dr. Ejaz Ahmed
1
Read comments and additional details
given with some slides
Outline
Introduction to transaction processing
Transaction and system concepts
Desirable properties of transactions
Schedules and recoverability
Schedules and Serializability
Transaction support in SQL
Summary
2
Introduction to Transaction
Processing
Single-user VS multi-user systems
A DBMS is single-user if at most one user
can use the system at a time
A DBMS is multi-user if many users can use
the system concurrently
Problem
How to make the simultaneous interactions
of multiple users with the database safe,
consistent, correct, and efficient?
3
Introduction to Transaction
Processing
Computing systems
Single-processor computer system
Multiprogramming
Inter-leaved Execution
Pseudo-parallel processing
Multi-processor computer system
Parallel processing

4
Concurrent Transactions
5
Interleaved processing
(Single processor)
Parallel processing
(Two or more processors)
t
1
t
2
t
1
t
2

time
CPU
1

CPU
2

A
B
A
B
CPU
1

A
B
What is a Transaction?
A transaction T is a logical unit of database processing
that includes one or more database access operations
Embedded within an application program
Specified interactively (e.g., via SQL)
Transaction boundaries:
Begin/end transaction
Types of transactions
Read transaction
write transaction
Read-set of T: all data items that transaction T reads
Write-set of T: all data items that transaction T writes

6
Role of Transactions
7
Transaction processing (TP) systems underlie the online
applications. a transaction rate of 15 simple Debit Credit
transactions per second was common, 50 TPS was a good
system, 100 TPS was fast, and a 400 TPS system was
characterized as being a very lean and mean system [24].


Teradata capabilities, usage of parallel databases,
configuration and tuning etc.
A Transaction: An Informal Example
Transfer 400,000 from checking account to
savings account
For a user it is one activity
To database:
Read balance of checking account: read( X)
Read balance of savings account: read (Y)
Subtract 400,000 from X
Add 400,000 to Y
Write new value of X back to disk
Write new value of Y back to disk
8
Transactions Example
Usage of ATM to draw money, to collect bills
with dispenser


9
Database Read and Write
Operations
A database is represented as a collection of named
data items
Read-item (X)
1. Find the address of the disk block that contains item X
2. Copy the disk block into a buffer in main memory
3. Copy the item X from the buffer to the program variable named
X
Write-item (X)
1. Find the address of the disk block that contains item X.
2. Copy that disk block into a buffer in main memory
3. Copy item X from the program variable named X into its correct
location in the buffer.
4. Store the updated block from the buffer back to disk (either
immediately or at some later point in time).
10
A Transaction: A Formal
Example
T1

read_item(X);
read_item(Y);
X:=X - 400000;
Y:=Y + 400000;
write _item(X);
write_item(Y);
11
t
0

t
k

Introduction to Transaction
Processing (Cont.)
Why concurrency control is needed?
Three problems are
1. The lost update problem
2. The temporary update (dirty read) problem
3. Incorrect summary problem
12
Operations & Consistent States
Database Operation (read and write)
Non-database Operation (calculations/
formula)
Database Consistent State
Database Inconsistent State
Chapter 17-13
9-14

Concurrent Transaction
Concurrent transactions refer to two or more
transactions that appear to users as they are being
processed against a database at the same time
In reality, CPU can execute only one instruction at a time
Transactions are interleaved meaning that the operating
system quickly switches CPU services among tasks so that
some portion of each of them is carried out in a given interval
Concurrency problems: lost update and inconsistent
reads
9-15

Concurrent Transaction Processing
9-16

Lost-Update Problem
Transaction Examples
Chapter 17-17
$10 could be lost: inconsistent state
Transaction is committed or is aborted, DB is rollback or undo
PL/SQL Transaction Example
18
9-19

Example The Lost Update
Problem
Chapter 17-20
Chapter 17-21
FIGURE 17.2
Two sample transactions. (a) Transaction T
1
.
(b) Transaction T
2
.
Chapter 17-22

Some problems that occur when concurrent
execution is uncontrolled. (b) The temporary update
problem (Dirty Read).
Lost Update Problem
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X - N;


write_item(X);
read_item(Y);

Y:=Y + N;
write_item(Y);
23
T2


read_item(X);
X:=X+M;


write_item(X);
time
Temporary Update (Dirty Read)
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X - N;
write_item(X);



read_item(Y);
T1 fails and aborts
24
T2



read_item(X);
X:=X+M;
write_item(X);
time
25
FIGURE 17.3 (continued)
Some problems that occur when concurrent execution is
uncontrolled. (c) The incorrect summary problem
(inconsistent).
Incorrect Summary Problem
T1


read_item(X);
X:=X-N;
write_item(X);



read_item(Y);
Y=Y+N
Write_item(Y)
26
T2
sum:=0;
read_item(A);
sum:=sum+A;

read_item(X);
sum:=sum+X;
read_item(Y);
sum:=sum+Y
time
What Can Go Wrong?
System may crash before data is written back to
disk
= Problem of atomicity
Some transaction is modifying shared data while
another transaction is ongoing (or vice versa)
= Problem of serialization and isolation
System may not be able to obtain one or more of
the data items
System may not be able to write one or more of
the data items
= Problems of atomicity
DBMS has a Concurrency Control subsytem to
assure database remains in consistent state
despite concurrent execution of transactions
27
Other Problems
System failures may occur
Types of failures:
System crash
Transaction or system error
Local errors
Concurrency control enforcement
Disk failure
Physical failures
DBMS has a Recovery Subsystem to
protect database against system
failures
28
Introduction to Transaction
Processing (Cont.)
Why recovery is needed?
1. A computer failure (system crash)
2. A transaction or system error
3. Local errors or exception conditions detected
by the transaction
4. Concurrency control enforcement
5. Disk failure
6. Physical problems and catastrophes

29
Chapter 17-30
Why recovery is needed:
(What causes a Transaction to fail)
1. A computer failure (system crash): A hardware or
software error occurs in the computer system during
transaction execution. If the hardware crashes, the
contents of the computers internal memory may be
lost.
2. A transaction or system error : Some operation in the
transaction may cause it to fail, such as integer overflow
or division by zero. Transaction failure may also occur
because of erroneous parameter values or because of
a logical programming error. In addition, the user may
interrupt the transaction during its execution.

Introduction to Transaction Processing (11)
Chapter 17-31
Why recovery is needed (cont.):
3. Local errors or exception conditions detected by the
transaction:
- certain conditions necessitate cancellation of the transaction.
For example, data for the transaction may not be found. A
condition, such as insufficient account balance in a banking
database, may cause a transaction, such as a fund withdrawal
from that account, to be canceled.
- a programmed abort in the transaction causes it to fail.
4. Concurrency control enforcement: The concurrency control
method may decide to abort the transaction, to be restarted later,
because it violates serializability or because several transactions
are in a state of deadlock (see Chapter 18).
Introduction to Transaction Processing (12)
Chapter 17-32
Why recovery is needed (cont.):
5. Disk failure: Some disk blocks may lose their data
because of a read or write malfunction or because of
a disk read/write head crash. This may happen during
a read or a write operation of the transaction.
6. Physical problems and catastrophes: This refers
to an endless list of problems that includes power or
air-conditioning failure, fire, theft, sabotage,
overwriting disks or tapes by mistake, and mounting
of a wrong tape by the operator.
Introduction to Transaction Processing (13)
Transaction and System
Concepts
Transaction states
BEGIN_TRANSACTION: marks start of transaction
READ or WRITE: two possible operations on the
data
END_TRANSACTION: marks the end of the read or
write operations; start checking whether
everything went according to plan
COMIT_TRANSACTION: signals successful end of
transaction; changes can be committed to DB
Partially committed
ROLLBACK (or ABORT): signals unsuccessful end of
transaction, changes applied to DB must be
undone
33
Transaction States: A state transition diagram
34
Chapter 17-35
Transaction and System Concepts (3)
Recovery manager keeps track of the following operations
(cont):
commit_transaction: This signals a successful end of
the transaction so that any changes (updates) executed
by the transaction can be safely committed to the
database and will not be undone.
rollback (or abort): This signals that the transaction
has ended unsuccessfully, so that any changes or
effects that the transaction may have applied to the
database must be undone.
Chapter 17-36
Transaction and System Concepts (4)
Recovery techniques use the following operators:
undo: Similar to rollback except that it applies to
a single operation rather than to a whole
transaction.
redo: This specifies that certain transaction
operations must be redone to ensure that all the
operations of a committed transaction have
been applied successfully to the database.
Chapter 17-37
Transaction and System Concepts (6)
The System Log
Log or Journal : The log keeps track of all transaction
operations that affect the values of database items. This
information may be needed to permit recovery from
transaction failures. The log is kept on disk, so it is not
affected by any type of failure except for disk or
catastrophic failure. In addition, the log is periodically
backed up to archival storage (tape) to guard against
such catastrophic failures.
T in the following discussion refers to a unique
transaction-id that is generated automatically by the
system and is used to identify each transaction:
The System Log
Transaction id
System log
Multiple record-type file
Log is kept on disk
Periodically backed up
Log records
1. [start_transaction, T]
2. [write_item, T,X,old_value,new_value]:
3. [read_item, T,X]
4. [commit,T]
5. [abort,T]
6. [checkpoint]
Commit point of a transaction
38
How is the Log File Used?
All permanent changes to data are recorded
Possible to undo changes to data
After crash, search log backwards until find
last checkpoint
Know that beyond this point, effects of transaction
are permanently recorded
Need to either redo or undo everything that
happened since last checkpoint
Undo: When transaction only partially completed
(before crash)
Redo: Transaction completed but we are unsure
whether data was written to disk
39
Example of a Transaction Log

TransID Table RowID column Before After
------- --------- ------ ------- ------ ------
100 **start**
100 EMPLOYEE 1005472 Salary 8000 8250
100 PROJECT 1423PRJ PrjRate 253 256
100 **end committed**

Chapter 17-40
A Sample SQL Transaction
EXEC SQL WHENEVER SQLERROR GOTO UNDO;
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION
READ WRITE
DIAGONOSTIC SIZE 5
ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
EXEC SQL INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE(FNAME, LNAME, SSN, DNO, SALARY)
VALUES (Ali, Al-Fares, 991004321, 2, 35000)
EXEC SQL UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY * 1.1 WHERE DNO = 2;
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
GOTO END_T;
UNDO: EXEC SQL ROLLBACK;
END_T: ;
41
Checkpoints
The point of synchronization between the database and
the transaction log file is called checkpoint.
Database recovery is performed using transaction log.
How far to go back in the transaction log to search in
case of failure.
Redoing transactions which are already Written to
database Time consuming & wasteful.
To find a point before which transactions are done
correctly and safely checking point
In checkpoint technique, all buffers are force written to
secondary storage.

42
Checkpoint technique ...
Is used to limit
the volume of log information
amount of searching and
subsequent processing that is needed to carry out on the
transaction log file.

Forcing a Checkpoint: Example The following statement forces a
checkpoint:
ALTER SYSTEM CHECKPOINT;

Enabling Resource Limits: Example This ALTER SYSTEM
statement dynamically enables resource limits:
ALTER SYSTEM SET RESOURCE_LIMIT = TRUE;

43
Oracle CKPT
Oracle Database uses the following types of checkpoints (CKPT)
Consistent database shutdown
ALTER SYSTEM CHECKPOINT statement
Online redo log switch
ALTER DATABASE BEGIN BACKUP statement
A tablespace checkpoint is a set of data file checkpoints, one for
each data file in the tablespace. These checkpoints occur in a
variety of situations, including making a tablespace read-only or
taking it offline normal, shrinking a data file, or executing
ALTER TABLESPACE BEGIN BACKUP.
44
Desirable Properties of
Transactions
ACID properties
1. Atomicity
A transaction is an atomic unit of processing; it is either
performed in its entirety or not performed at all.
2. Consistency preservation
A transaction is consistency preserving if its complete
execution takes the database from one consistent state to
another
3. Isolation
The execution of a transaction should not be interfered with by
any other transactions executing concurrently
4. Durability
The changes applied to the database by a committed
transaction must persist in the database. These changes must
not be lost because of any failure
45
Desirable Properties of
Transactions
Atomicity
Responsibility of transaction processing and recovery
subsystems of the DBMS
Consistency
Preservation of consistency is the responsibility of
programmers
Each transaction is assumed to take database from one
consistent state to another consistent state
Isolation
Enforced by the concurrency control subsystem of the
DBMS
Durability
Responsibility of the recovery subsystems of the DBMS
46
Transaction Processing
We have discussed that
Multiple transactions can be executed
concurrently by interleaving their operations
Schedule
Ordering of execution of operations from
various transactions T
1
, T
2
, , T
n
is called a
schedule S
47
Schedules and Recoverability
Definition of Schedule (or history)

Schedule S of n transactions T
1
,
T
2
, , T
n
is an ordering of the
operations of the transactions
subject to the constraint that, for
each transaction T
i
that
participates in S, the operations of
T
i
in S must appear in the same
order in which they occur in T
i
.
48
Example of a Schedule
Transaction T
1
: r
1
(X); w
1
(X); r
1
(Y); w
1
(Y);
c
1
Transaction T
2
: r
2
(X); w
2
(X); c
2

A schedule, S:
r
1
(X); r
2
(X); w
1
(X); r
1
(Y); w
2
(X); w
1
(Y); c
1
;
c
2


49
Conflicts
Two operations conflict if they satisfy ALL
three conditions:
1. they belong to different transactions AND
2. they access the same item AND
3. at least one is a write_item()operation
Example.:
S: r
1
(X); r
2
(X); w
1
(X); r
1
(Y); w
2
(X); w
1
(Y);
50
conflicts
Schedules of Transactions
Complete schedule
A schedule S of n transactions T
1
, T
2
, ..., T
n
, is
said to be a complete schedule if the following
conditions hold:
The operations in S are exactly those operations in T
1
, T
2
,
..., T
n
including a commit or abort operation as the last
operation for each transaction in the schedule.
For any pair of operations from the same transaction T
i
,
their order of appearance in S is the same as their order of
appearance in T
i
.
For any two conflicting operations, one of the two must
occur before the other in the schedule

51
Serializability of Schedules
Serial Schedule
Non-serial schedule
Serializable schedule
Conflict-serializable schedule
View-serializable schedule


File Attached: Ch17-18doc



52
Chapter 17-53
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability (2)
Result equivalent: Two schedules are called
result equivalent if they produce the same final
state of the database.
Conflict equivalent: Two schedules are said to
be conflict equivalent if the order of any two
conflicting operations is the same in both
schedules.
Conflict serializable: A schedule S is said to be
conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to
some serial schedule S.
54
Chapter 17-55
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability (3)
Being serializable is not the same as being
serial

Being serializable implies that the schedule is a
correct schedule.
It will leave the database in a consistent state.
The interleaving is appropriate and will result in a
state as if the transactions were serially executed, yet
will achieve efficiency due to concurrent execution.
Serializability of Schedules (Cont.)
Serial and Nonserial schedule
A schedule S is serial if, for every
transaction T participating in the schedule,
all the operations of T are executed
consecutively in the schedule; otherwise,
the schedule is called nonserial
Serializable schedule
A schedule S of n transactions is
serializable if it is equivalent to some
serial schedule of the same n transactions
56
Serial Schedule
We consider transactions to be independent, so
serial schedule is correct
Based on C property in ACID
Furthermore, it does not matter which
transaction is executed first, as long as every
transaction is executed in its entirety, from
beginning to end
Example
Assume X=90, Y=90, N=3, M=2, then result of
schedule S is X=89 and Y= 93
Same result if we start with T2

57
Why Do We Interleave Transactions?
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X-N;
write_item(X);
read_item(Y);
Y:=Y+N;
write_item(Y);
58
T2





read_item(X):
X:=X+M;
write_item(X);
Could be a long wait
S is a serial schedule no interleaving!
Schedule S
Another Schedule
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X-N;


write_item(X);
read_item(Y);

Y:=Y+N;
write_item(Y);
59
T2


read_item(X):
X:=X+M;


write_item(X);
S is a non-serial schedule
T2 will be done faster but is the result correct?
Schedule S
Concurrent Executions
Serial execution is by far simplest method
to execute transactions
No extra work ensuring consistency
Inefficient!
Reasons for concurrency:
Increased throughput
Reduces average response time
Need concept of correct concurrent
execution
Using same X, Y, N, M values as before,
result of S is X=92 and Y=93 (not correct)
60
Yet Another Schedule
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X-N;
write_item(X);



read_item(Y);
Y:=Y+N;
write_item(Y);
61
T2



read_item(X):
X:=X+M;
write_item(X);



S is a non-serial schedule
Produces same result as serial schedule S
Schedule S
Serializability
Assumption: Every serial schedule is correct
Goal: Find non-serial schedules which are also
correct
A schedule S of n transactions is serializable if it
is equivalent to some serial schedule of the
same n transactions
When are two schedules equivalent?
Option 1: They lead to same result (result
equivalent)
Option 2: The order of any two conflicting
operations is the same (conflict equivalent)
62
Result Equivalent Schedules
Two schedules are result equivalent if they
produce the same final state of the database
Problem: May produce same result by accident!
63
S1
read_item(X);
X:=X+10;
write_item(X);
S2
read_item(X);
X:=X*1.1;
write_item(X);
Schedules S1 and S2 are result equivalent for X=100 but not in general
Conflict Equivalent Schedules
Two schedules are conflict equivalent, if
the order of any two conflicting operations
is the same in both schedules
64
Conflict Equivalence
T1
read_item(A);
write_item(A);


read_item(B);
write_item(B);
65
T2






read_item(A):
write_item(A);
read_item(B);
write_item(B);
order matters
order doesnt matter
order matters
Serial Schedule S1
order
doesnt matter
Conflict Equivalence
T1
read_item(A);
read_item(B);
write_item(A);


write_item(B);
66
T2



read_item(A):
write_item(A);

read_item(B);
write_item(B);
S1 and S1 are conflict equivalent
(S1 produces the same result as S1)
Schedule S1
same order as in S1
same order as in S1
Conflict Equivalence
T1


read_item(A);
write_item(A);


read_item(B);
write_item(B);
67
T2
read_item(A):
write_item(A);


read_item(B);
write_item(B);
Schedule S1 is not conflict equivalent to S1
(produces a different result than S1)
Schedule S1
different order than in S1
different order than in S1
Conflict Serializable
Schedule S is conflict serializable if it is
conflict equivalent to some serial schedule S
We can reorder the non-conflicting operations to
improve efficiency
Non-conflicting operations:
Reads and writes from same transaction
Reads from different transactions
Reads and writes from different transactions on
different data items
Conflicting operations:
Reads and writes from different transactions on
same data item
68
Example
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X-N;
write_item(X);
read_item(Y);
Y:=Y+N;
write_item(Y);
69
T2






read_item(X);
X:=X+M;
write_item(X);
T1
read_item(X);
X:=X-N;
write_item(X);



read_item(Y);
Y:=Y+N;
write_item(Y);
T2



read_item(X);
X:=X+M;
write_item(X);
Schedule A Schedule B
B is conflict equivalent to A B is serializable
Test for Serializability
Construct a directed graph, precedence graph, G = (V,
E)
V: set of all transactions participating in schedule
E: set of edges T
i
T
j
for which one of the following holds:
T
i
executes a write_item(X) before T
j
executes read_item(X)
T
i
executes a read_item(X) before T
j
executes write_item(X)
T
i
executes a write_item(X) before T
j
executes write_item(X)
An edge T
i
T
j
means that in any serial schedule
equivalent to S, T
i
must come before T
j

If G has a cycle, than S is not conflict serializable
If not, use topological sort to obtain serialiazable
schedule (linear order consistent with precedence
order of graph)
70
Sample Schedule S
T1


read_item(X);
write_item(X);



read_item(Y);
write_item(Y);
71
T2






read_item(Z);


read_item(Y);
write_item(Y);
read_item(X);
write_item(X);
T3
read_item(Y);
read_item(Z);


write_item(Y);
write_item(Z);
Precedence Graph for S
72
T1 T2
T3
X,Y
Y
Y,Z
Equivalent Serial Schedule:
T3 T1 T2
(precedence order)
no cycles S is serializable
Chapter 17-73
FIGURE 17.8 (continued)
Another example of serializability testing. (b) Schedule E.
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Being serializable is not the same as
being serial
Being serializable implies that the
schedule is a correct schedule.
It will leave the database in a consistent
state.
The interleaving is appropriate and will result
in a state as if the transactions were serially
executed, yet will achieve efficiency due to
concurrent execution.
74
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Serializability is hard to check.
Interleaving of operations occurs in an
operating system through some scheduler
Difficult to determine before hand how the
operations in a schedule will be interleaved.
75
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Practical approach:
Come up with methods (protocols) to ensure
serializability.
Its not possible to determine when a schedule begins
and when it ends. Hence, we reduce the problem of
checking the whole schedule to checking only a
committed project of the schedule (i.e. operations from
only the committed transactions.)
Current approach used in most DBMSs:
Concurrency control techniques
Examples
Two-phase locking technique
Timestamp ordering technique
76
Chapter 17-77
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability (4)
Serializability is hard to check.
Interleaving of operations occurs in an
operating system through some scheduler
Difficult to determine beforehand how the
operations in a schedule will be interleaved.
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
View equivalence: A less restrictive definition of
equivalence of schedules

View serializability
Definition of serializability based on view equivalence.
A schedule is view serializable if it is view equivalent to
a serial schedule.
78
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Two schedules are said to be view equivalent if the following three
conditions hold:
1. The same set of transactions participates in S and S, and S and S
include the same operations of those transactions.
2. For any operation R
i
(X) of T
i
in S, if the value of X read by the
operation has been written by an operation W
j
(X) of T
j
(or if it is the
original value of X before the schedule started), the same condition
must hold for the value of X read by operation R
i
(X) of T
i
in S.
3. If the operation W
k
(Y) of T
k
is the last operation to write item Y in S,
then W
k
(Y) of T
k
must also be the last operation to write item Y in
S.
79
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
The premise behind view equivalence:
As long as each read operation of a transaction reads
the result of the same write operation in both schedules,
the write operations of each transaction must produce
the same results.
The view: the read operations are said to see the the
same view in both schedules.
80
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Relationship between view and conflict equivalence:
The two are same under constrained write assumption
which assumes that if T writes X, it is constrained by the
value of X it read; i.e., new X = f(old X)
Conflict serializability is stricter than view serializability.
With unconstrained write (or blind write), a schedule that
is view serializable is not necessarily conflict serializable.
Any conflict serializable schedule is also view
serializable, but not vice versa.
81
Characterizing Schedules
based on Serializability
Relationship between view and conflict equivalence
(cont):
Consider the following schedule of three transactions
T1: r1(X), w1(X); T2: w2(X); and T3: w3(X):
Schedule Sa: r1(X); w2(X); w1(X); w3(X); c1; c2; c3;

In Sa, the operations w2(X) and w3(X) are blind writes, since T1 and
T3 do not read the value of X.

Sa is view serializable, since it is view equivalent to the serial
schedule T1, T2, T3. However, Sa is not conflict serializable, since
it is not conflict equivalent to any serial schedule.
82
Chapter 17-83
FIGURE 17.7
Constructing the precedence graphs for schedules A and D from Figure 17.5 to
test for conflict serializability. (a) Precedence graph for serial schedule A. (b)
Precedence graph for serial schedule B. (c) Precedence graph for schedule C
(not serializable). (d) Precedence graph for schedule D (serializable, equivalent
to schedule A).
Transaction Support in SQL
A single SQL statement is always considered
to be atomic
There is no explicit Begin_Transaction
statement
SET TRANSACTION statement in SQL2 sets
the characteristics of a transaction
Access mode
READ only or READ-WRITE
Diagnostic area size
Indicates the number of conditions that can be held
simultaneously in the diagnostic area.
Isolation level
READ UNCOMMITTED, READ COMMITTED,
REPEATABLE READ, SERIALIZABLE
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Isolation Level
Type of Violation
Dirty
READ
Non-
Repeatable
READ
Phantom
READ
UNCOMMITTED
Yes Yes Yes
READ
COMMITTED
No Yes Yes
REPEATABLE
READ
No No Yes
SERIALIZABLE
No No No
A Sample SQL Transaction
EXEC SQL WHENEVER SQLERROR GOTO UNDO;
EXEC SQL SET TRANSACTION
READ WRITE
DIAGONOSTIC SIZE 5
ISOLATION LEVEL SERIALIZABLE;
EXEC SQL INSERT INTO
EMPLOYEE(FNAME, LNAME, SSN, DNO, SALARY)
VALUES (Ali, Al-Fares, 991004321, 2, 35000)
EXEC SQL UPDATE EMPLOYEE
SET SALARY = SALARY * 1.1 WHERE DNO = 2;
EXEC SQL COMMIT;
GOTO END_T;
UNDO: EXEC SQL ROLLBACK;
END_T: ;
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Summary
Introduction to transaction processing
Transaction and system concepts
Desirable properties of transactions
Schedules and recoverability
Serializability of schedules
Transaction support in SQL

Thank you
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