Human Development

Nature vs. Nurture

Watson clearly stated that development
took place from a purely nurture stance

Gesell stated that development was a
biological process and believed that
development took place through a series
of genetically determined changes that
take place over the course of ones life
Developmental Studies
In order to study development of human
beings, we use several different designs:

1. Longitudinal
2. Cross-sectional
3. Sequential
Reflexes of children
Rooting reflex

You can often stroke
the babys cheek and
see this reflex
Eyeblink Reflex
Reflexive blinking that
protects baby from
bright lights and
foreign objects.
Sucking Reflex
Babies instinctively
begin to suck at
objects placed in the
mouth.
Moro Reflex
When the baby hears a loud noise or their head
falls back, they may instinctively extend arms
out, arch its back and bring arms toward each
other as though they are trying to grab
someone.
Palmar and Plantar Grasp Reflex
Palmar-Curling of the
fingers around an object
that touches the palms.

Plantar-Stroke bottom of
foot, curl toes
Tonic Neck Reflex

The tonic neck reflex, or fencer response,
is present at birth

This reflex usually disappears by 4-9
months.
Babinski Reflex
Babinski's reflex
occurs when the great
toe flexes toward the
top of the foot and the
other toes fan out
after the sole of the
foot has been firmly
stroked
abnormal after the
age of 2.
Sensory Development
Discerning faces - 1 month old
babies appear to be able to
distinguish mothers face from
strangers as long as they hear
the mothers voice as well

At 3 months, baby appears to
distinguish mother from stranger
with face alone

Sight
Babies are born legally blind with a vision
of 20/600 you need to be no more than 8
inches from their face

By 6 months they are at 20/100 you
need to be at least a few feet away

By 9 months they are at 20/60 they can
see you across the room
For the first couple of months, babies will
be able to distinguish patterns, but tend to
respond to blacks and reds

By 5 or 6 months, babies begin to discern
colors

A word about pastels
Hearing
By 1 month, babies can distinguish
between the smallest variations in sound

By 6 months, they have developed the
ability to understand and make all of the
sounds necessary for their language
structure
Touch
Newborns have a well-developed sense of
touch and will, over time, come to use this
sense a lot

Babies will begin to explore their world
using tactile sensations, which is why
many of the toys for infants have different
textures


Smell
1-day-old infants can distinguish between
some smells

1 -month-old infants can distinguish
between the smell of their mother and that
of a stranger (which is why people tell you
to leave the baby with something that has
your smell on it)
Taste
Newborns appear to prefer the taste of
sweet and salty and dislike bitter-tasting
things

It has been observed that during
pregnancy infants will lick the placenta
wall which may help to develop a sense of
taste
Depth Perception
Visual cliff experiment
-

Visual Cliff Experiment
3-month-old babies would have their
heartbeat decrease when approaching the
ledge

6-month-old babies would have their
heartbeat increase when approaching the
ledge would not crawl across, although
some did when mother prompted them to
Temperament
Thomas and Chess did a longitudinal
study on American babies and found:

40% of the babies were easy
15% of the babies were slow-to-warm-up
10% of the babies were difficult
35% of the babies were a mixture of the three


Follow-up studies later showed:

Easy babies more likely to be popular, social,
independent and successful

Difficult babies were more likely to be
involved in the law and we less popular and
less well-liked
Lorenz and attachment
Imprinting-
Formation of a strong bond of attachment to
the first moving thing seen right after birth

Lorenz made himself the first thing seen by
goslings and sure enough they followed him

The goslings follow Lorenz everywhere


The Harlows and attachment
Baby monkeys were separated from their
mothers right after birth

Some were put in a room with a wire cylinder
surrogate mother
Some were put in a room with a soft, terry-
cloth covered cylinder
When scared, the infants preferred to go to the
soft mother-demonstrated that attachment is
about who provides contact comfort


Video
clip
John Bowlby
1
st
to study human infants
Found those separated from mothers upon
birth initially cried loudly and threw
tantrums
Later, crying gave way to despair
Finally, infants showed emotional
detachment
Mary Ainsworth
Put children in Strange Situation found three
types of attachment
Secure type use mothers as a secure based, look
around occasionally, limited exploration in mothers
absence. Cried when mother left and were happy
upon return. (65-70%)

Insecure-avoidant type paid little attention to mother
when she was in room, separated easily from mother.
Showed little distress when she left and ignored her
upon return. (20%)

Insecure-ambivalent type clung to mother and were
reluctant to explore environment. High level of distress
when mom left and still showed distress upon her return.
(10 percent)


Later studies by others revealed a 4
th
pattern-
disorganized/disoriented attachment in which the infant
appears confused and were unable to approach the
mother directly for supported even when distressed
Effects of Daycare and Attachment
Some believe that daycare interferes with
attachment
Research has shown no effects on infant
mother attachment
Some research suggest that children in
daycare may be more aggressive though
this may be due to mediocre daycare
High-quality daycare seems to have no
negative effects
Eriksons Eight Stages of Man

Erikson Quote
"...children cannot be fooled by empty praise
and condescending encouragement. They may
have to accept artificial bolstering of their self-
esteem in lieu of something better, but what I
call their accruing ego identity gains real
strength only from wholehearted and consistent
recognition of real accomplishment, that is,
achievement that has meaning in their culture"
Eriksons eight stages of man
Erikson is the first psychologist to go
beyond adolescence and recognize that
life still changes beyond this time

This is perhaps because he was practicing
at a time when adolescence was a factor

The eight stages are:
Trust vs. Mistrust
Birth to 1 year
To develop trust infants needs must be
met
Must be played with, cuddled
When care is inconsistent or rejecting,
mistrust develops child becomes
suspicious and fearful
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Ages 2-3
Child developing new motor and mental
abilities
Parents should encourage autonomy
If parents are impatient and does things
for child, or if they are critical, the child will
begin to doubt themselves and feel shame
Caution: dont give too much autonomy
Initiative vs. Guilt
Ages 4-5
Child becomes master of his body
Begins tasks like riding a bike, running,
cutting
Children who are given the freedom and
opportunity to engage in tasks have sense
of initiative reinforced
Parents should not try to hinder fantasy or
play
If parents make the child feel bad or feel
like a nuisance with their questions, the
child will develop a sense of guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Ages 6-11
Elementary school years
Love for opposite sex parent is repressed
Children really begin to learn and play by rules
Concern for how things work, how things are
made, and what things actually do
Children who are encouraged to make things, do
things or build things will develop a sense of
industry
Parents who see their child as mischievous
or as messy will help the child develop a
sense of inferiority

School plays a critical role during this
period-friends and teachers play an
integral role in development
It is in this stage that lifelong academic
failure can begin
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Ages 12-18 (some argue up to 23 today)
Seeks to find a romantic partner due to
reawakened Oedipal complex
Begin hypothetical thinking, thinking about
what others think of them
Adolescent works to integrate everything
they know about themselves to create an
identity
When an adolescent cannot attain a sense
of personal identity, they show role
confusion, a sense of not knowing who
they are or where they belong to.

Role confusion often seen with delinquent
adolescents or promiscuous young girls

For some, having a negative self identity is
better than having no identity at all
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Ages late adolescence to young to early
middle age
People will reach out to find an intimate
relationship
Able to care about another without losing
oneself in the process
Parents have indirectly contributed to the
individuals success or failure at the earlier
stages.
Generativity vs. Self-Absorption
(Stagnation)
Ages middle age
Concerned with others beyond immediate
family, with future generations, nature of
society
Those who dont meet this need tend to
fall into focus only on their personal needs
and comforts

May see the person beginning to question
how prosperous they were or how well
they have done for themselves.

Men may go through a mid-life crisis;
women may go through empty nest
syndrome
Integrity vs. Despair
Ages elderly
Time for reflection on life
Hope to look back on life with satisfaction
Some look at life as a series of missed
opportunities and now realizes it is too late
These people may look back and have
despair over what might have been
Freud Psychosexual
Development
Stage 1 Oral Stage
(Birth-18 months) erotic
focus is the mouth.

Pleasure seeking activities
include sucking, chewing,
biting.
If needs are gratified too
much or too little they
continue to seek
gratification as an adult
Stage 2 Anal Stage (1
years to 3) erotic
focus is on the anus
expelling or retaining
feces.
If child gets locked into this
stage, they continue to
engage in behaviors
associated with retention
or elimination. They may
become anal retentive or
anal expulsive.
Stage 3 Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)
erotic focus is on the genital area.

Oedipal/Electra complex
Problems resolving the complex may lead to
feelings of inferiority toward their own sex and
having to prove something to the opposite sex.

Penis Envy
Castration Anxiety
Stage 4 Latency Stage (6 to puberty)
no erotic focus, represses sexuality
Child represses sexual urges and thoughts
and engages in nonsexual activities such as
developing social and intellectual skills
Stage 5 Genital Stage (Puberty through
adulthood) Erotic focus is on genitals
once again, but more about becoming
sexually intimate with others

If other stages have been met successfully,
adolescent will now be able to form loving,
successful relationships
Piaget-Cognitive Development
Stage 1 Sensorimotor
Stage (Birth-2)
Infant tries to
coordinate senses
with motor skills
Develops symbolic
thought (mental
images)
Object permanence
around 9 months,
mastered 18 months
Stage 2 Preoperational
Stage (2-7 yrs)
Has not achieved conservation
the awareness that as something
changes in physical qualities, the
quantity does not change

Centration-they only have the
ability to focus on one aspect of
a problem at a time

Irreversibility-they are unable to
envision reversing an action that
has already been done


Egocentrism-they are
unable to take
anothers point of view

Animisim-when child
assigns human
qualities to inanimate
objects

Artificialism-the childs
belief that natural
objects are manmade

Literalism-takes the
spoken word seriously

Stage 3 Concrete Operational Stage (7-
11 years)

Child attains conservation, ability to reverse,
they are able to decentrate, experience less
egocentrism, less artificialism, less animism,
less literalism
Stage 4 Formal
Operational Stage
(11 years and up)
Child now achieves
abstract,
hypothetical
thought
Child achieves conservation of:

Number Age 6 to 7
Mass Age 7 to 8
Length Age 7 to 8
Area Age 8-9
What would you do if.?
You are in your last semester of college.
You are close to failing your English class.
You will pass the class if you do very well
on your English final exam.

You are looking through your English
teachers desk for a stapler when you
come across the final exam. Do you take
it?
Kohlbergs Stages of Moral
Reasoning
Level 1 Preconventional Stage childs
moral reasoning is based on external
authority
Stage 1 Punishment orientation based on
being or not being punished (ages 1 to 5)
Stage 2 Nave Reward Orientation based
on receiving or not receiving a reward (age 5
to 10)
Level 2 Conventional Level child sees
rules as necessary for maintaining order.

Stage 3 Good boy/good girl-seeks approval
and avoids disapproval from others (8 to 12
years old)

Stage 4 Authority Orientation morals
based on societys rules which should be
obeyed. Rules are very rigid (around 10 to 14
years old)
Level 3 Postconventional Level
working within ones own personal code of
ethics
Stage 5 Social Contract Orientation
Morals based on societys rules, however
rules are now questioned and seen as fallible
(early adolescence)

Stage 6 Individual Principles and
Conscience Orientation Morals based on
justice, where the person does what they
believe is right (adolescence)
Parenting styles
Adolescents respond to
different parenting styles
1. Authoritarian
parents attempt to
shape and control
behavior based on a
set standard of
conduct, usually based
on an absolute
standard. Tend to use
harsh discipline.

2. Authoritative attempt to direct their
childrens activities in a rational and
intelligent way. They are supportive,
loving, and committed, encourage verbal
give-and-take, and discuss rules and
policies with their children. Value being
expressive and independent but are still
demanding. These children tend to be
competent. Girls tend to be achievement-
oriented and boys tend to be friendly and
cooperative.
3. Permissive parents less controlling
and behave with a non-punishing and
accepting attitude toward childrens
impulses, desires and actions.
Parenting styles tend to influence the
adolescents development of independence
Authoritarian-less behavior problems, but more
conforming and lower self-esteem
Authoritative-teens more friendly, cooperative, better
adjusted to college
Permissive-less socially assertive and less
achievement oriented

The better the communication between parents and
children, the less risk-taking behavior children engage
in


Social Development
Up to 1 years child engages in solitary
play
1 to 2 years child engages in parallel
play in which they play side by side, doing
the same thing as playmate, yet there may
be no interaction
15 to 24 months begin to imitate peers,
go back and forth, imitate parents
SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
2 years begin to have
preferences in playmates,
however, up to 3 years,
gender of friends does not
seem to matter.

3 to 3 years cooperative play
children begin to play with
each other and interact

3 years social pretend play
imitate adult roles with peers
(doctor/patient)
Gender
Gender roles how
have they changed?
Gender identity-how
does one gain a
sense of their
gender?
Social learning
theory-we become
what we see?

Attachment
Bonding is defined at the tie an infant may
form with a parent in the hours after birth

Attachment is a longer process, one that is
more enduring
How does attachment occur?
Babies will cry, which elicits care from
parent
Social smiling 4 to 6 weeks which
elicits joy and pleasure from parent
At 6 months, babies will display pleasure
when parent returns after a short absence
At 9 months child begins to display
separation anxiety (this appears to be a
signal that attachment has formed)
Some studies suggest that children who
attend daycare may do better on tests of
language skills and math skills than
children who stay at home

Attachment during infancy appears to
carry over into later relationships
Gender and
attachment
Typically, attachment
may be stronger with
mother than father

This may be changing
today as more men
are staying home to
be primary caregiver

End part 1

The second part of this PowerPoint is for
the material being covered after the
second test
Kubler-Ross
Stages of Death and Dying

Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Adolescence
G. Stanley Hall calls it sturm and drang

Physical development primary sex and
secondary sex characteristics develop

Adolescents tend to develop the imaginary
audience and the personal fable
Piaget and egocentrism
Imaginary audience is when one believes
that others are very concerned about what
is happening with them

Personal fable is an exaggerated sense of
ones uniqueness in life so unique that
no one could possibly understand their
feelings
Gilligan and Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan felt that Kohlberg was
biased towards women in his theory of
moral development
Stated that women adopt a more care
orientation-more on caring and compassion

Men develop a more justice orientation-more
on fairness and rights
Erikson and adolescence
Stated that children in adolescence strive
to be free of parental and authoritative
control

Leads to withdrawal from parents and
other family members
Marcia and adolescence
Stated that adolescents end up in 1 of 4
places identity statuses
Foreclosure-when the child is forced to live
out the dreams of the parents. May lead to
bitterness and resentment
Diffusion-when child has not achieved an
identity and feels confused about who they
are and where they want to go in life. Often
take dead-end jobs

Moratorium when child wants to put off their
future for a while so they can explore other
options. May take meaningless jobs for a
while or travel, but they do plan to move on to
college or a more meaningful job

Achievement go to college or get a
meaningful job know the direction they want
to go
Gilligan and adolescence
Studied female self-esteem
Prior to adolescence, female and male self-esteem is
similar
During adolescence, female self-esteem drops
Girls tend to doubt themselves more
May be torn between sexual maturity and being the
nice girl
Pressure to engage in close cooperative relationships
which may reduce autonomy
Girls tend to fight the feminine ideal those
who are too tall tend to slouch, those who are
too short tend to try to look taller. Often
become preoccupied with looks and weight.

Girls tend to report a higher incidence of
depression, dissatisfaction with their bodies,
eating disorders and lower self-esteem

Males tend to have stress at the onset of
adolescence and tend to level off by the time
they are in their teens
Adolescence and maturation
Early versus late maturation
Early maturing boys tend to be:
More sociable
Be more confident
Be more likely to be involved in sports
Receive more social recognition from adults and
peers
Have others overestimate their competence
Trusted more by parents who question them less
Late maturing males tend to be:
More anxious
More eager
More attention-seeking
Rated by teachers as less masculine and less
physically attractive
feel socially inferior and feel inadequate
Tend to score lower on achievement tests
Early maturing females tend to be at a
disadvantage in that they:
Tend to be less outgoing and less popular
May be more anxious and depressed
May be more likely to be drawn into
relationships that they are not emotionally
ready for
Late maturing females tend to be:
Less popular with boys
Temporarily more well adjusted than early
maturing females

Brain development
Frontal lobe development
lags behind emotional
limbic system=
impulsiveness, emotional
storms, risky behaviors
When frontal lobe matures
so do emotions and
judgment.
Before prefrontal cortex
fully develops, amygdala
has major control
Social development

Move in crowds more
More interaction with peers
Search for intimacy intensifies
Increased distance from family towards
independence
Independence
Maturation into adulthood from childhood
Adolescents become able to accept
responsibility for actions and choices
More time spent among peers than adult
influence (i.e. mandatory school, clubs,
sports, and after school activities) has
affect on independence
Peer pressure (short vs. long term)

Elderly
Psychogeriatrics-

Study of the
behavioral changes
and problems that face
the elderly
Changes in physical,
social and emotional
development can lead
to psychological
problems
Elderly
Ironically, the last
part of the brain to
develop, the
prefrontal cortex
(during early 20s),
is the first part of
the brain to go
downhill (mid 20s)
Elderly
This affects fluid
intelligence more than it
does crystallized
intelligence
Fluid intelligence how
quickly one processes
information in novel
situations
Crystallized intelligence-
the knowledge one has-
ability to use skills and
experience
Elderly
Delirium-
Characterized by:
Agitation
Inattention
Disorientation
Memory problems
Confused
Restless

May lead to dementia
or death


Elderly
Psychosis-
When logic or
perception of reality is
impaired
Characterized by
hallucinations,
delusions, confusion
Associated with
sensory loss and
social isolation
Elderly
Dementia-
Progressive degenerative
cell loss
Affects memory, thinking,
emotions and behavior
50-60% of those with
dementia are diagnosed
with Alzheimers

Elderly
Alzheimers is the
third leading cause of
death in the elderly
(behind heart disease
and cancer)
No cure, but new
treatments may slow
down the progression
of the disease

Elderly
Current estimates are
that 26 million adults
are afflicted with
Alzheimers

By 2050, it is
estimates that almost
100 million adults will
have Alzheimers

Alzheimers
Currently, the
cost of
Alzheimers is
$100 million
per year

At this rate, the
U.S. would be
devastated
financially if a
cure is not
found






Taking baby aspirin may delay the onset of
the disease and potentially
slow the progression
Elderly
The most common
mental disorder in the
elderly is depression

The suicide rate in the
elderly is particularly
high due to illness, loss
of income, retirement,
loss of friends and loved
ones, etc.
Elderly
Suicide is a big
problem amongst the
elderly, yet it is often
ignored
From 1980-1992,
there were over
almost 75,000
suicides by the elderly
Elderly

It is believed that
between 6,000-10,000
elderly people commit
suicide per year
White males are at
most risk for suicide
Most use a firearm,
second is hanging and
third leading method is
overdose
Often looks like an
accidental death from
an overdose of meds