Qualitative Research

Methods
Theres more to it than meets the
eye!

Qualitative Methods
1. Get over the idea that research means
counting.
2. The focus is on subjective experiences, or the
meanings that people use.
3. Because meaning resides in language (people
think with language), qualitative research
largely involves studying text.
4. The best device for collecting and analyzing
qualitative information is the human brain.

Introduction

Qualitative Methods
5. Qualitative research is local, concrete.
6. Observations and findings depend on
understanding contexts and the meanings held
by the people in those contexts and the
meanings of the things in those contexts.
7. Observations are typically of interactions in
smaller groups or selectively defined settings.
8. Exploration is very often the motive, but not
always.

Introduction

Qualitative Methods
9. Qualitative research often provides idiographic
(as opposed to nomothetic) causal
explanations.
10. Qualitative research is typically inductive.
11. The research is reflexivedesign is flexible
and can change given the needs of the
research. E.g., Theoretical Sampling
12. The researcher must be reflexive as wellthe
brain tool must be calibrated, understood,
active, paid attention to, controlled

Introduction

Qualitative Methods
13. Qualitative research is very practical,
logical, and critical of itself. Researchers
constantly ask, Am I accurately
depicting the social world given the ways
I am collecting and analyzing my data?
14. Good qualitative research is often the
most rigorous, difficult research.

Introduction

DEDUCTIVE & INDUCTIVE REASONING

Elements of the Research Process

Deductive thinking (Quantitative)

THEORY

HYPOTHESIS
OBSERVATION
CONFIRMATION

Elements of the Research Process (Cont.)

Inductive thinking (Qualitative)

OBSERVATION
PATTERNS
HYPOTHESIS
THEORY

IDEAL

QUANTITATIVE

Research process is
deductive.
Measure objective facts.
Focus on variables.

Firewall between research

process and researchers
values.
Cross-contextual.
Many cases.

QUALITATIVE

Research process is
inductive.
Document social reality,
meaning is constructed.
Focus on in-depth meaning.

Values are present & explicit

(empathy).
Contextual dependence.
Few cases.

IDEAL
QUANTITATIVE

QUALITATIVE

Statistical analysis

Thematic analysis

Highly structured research

process.

Loosely structured
research process.

Particularistic, specific

Holistic perspective

Separation from data

Intimacy with data

Generalize to population

Generalization to properties and

contexts

Qualitative Methods
When should I use qualitative methods?
When variables cannot be quantified
When variables are best understood in their natural
settings
When variables are studied over real time
When studying intimate details of roles, processes,
and groups
When the paramount objective is understanding

Qualitative Methods
What skills do I need?
Must have requisite knowledge and skills about
methodology, setting and nature of the issue.
Must be familiar with own biases, assumptions,
expectations, and values.
Must be empathic, intelligent, energetic, and interested in
listening
Must be open to embracing multiple realities.
Must be prepared to produce detailed, comprehensive, and
sometimes lengthy reports.
Source: (Kuh & Andreas, 1991)

Qualitative Methods
Before collecting data, you have to determine what you want to
accomplish.
Tight versus Loose Design
Ask yourself:

How much time do I have?

What resources are available?
What is the purpose of the study?
In what am I really interested?

More structure can prevent waste

Design

If we already know about the context, it would be wasteful to go

exploring
If you have targeted topic, you can reduce data at the collection stage
and cut down on analysis time
Loose produces more data, more surprise discoveries can be
made

Qualitative Methods
Choose your unit of analysis.
Individuals
Certain experiences
Experiences in particular settings
Identities such as student with disabilities, ex-con

Groups

Design

Demographic groups
Intervention groups
Types of people such as ball players, secretaries
Those in one setting versus another
Organizations

Qualitative Methods
Qualitative research quickly exhausts resources and time.

Limit the amount of data collected.

Its not the size that matters, its what you do with the data.

Be very clear about the research focus

Write down your foggy ideas and then get more
specific.
Concentrate on most important issues and not others.
Start writing specific questions you want to answer.
Now get even more specificreduce

Design

Sampling
Plan Data Collection
Define sampling boundaries:

Space
Time
Social position
Context

Record nothing that is not in your sampling

parameters

Design

Sampling:
Qualitative versus Quantitative
Quantitative Sampling
Select Elements Representative of Target Population
Generalize from sample to population
Make claims about the population
Test theories within population

Qualitative Sampling
Select Elements Representative of Research Focus
Generate Detailed and Subjective Understanding
Answer research questions
Build theories

Sampling

Make choices that narrow or delimit research focus

and activities to a level that
A researchers brain can handle
Can be done in a reasonable amount of time
Is within a reasonable budget

Seek exposure to topic-related information

Focus only on information directly useful for the

research
Samples should be small, not large

Sampling

Sampling decisions are made throughout data

collection

Data
Text is generally collected from or in the form
of
Field notes

-- Newspaper or magazine stories

Interviews (recorded and transcribed)

Focus groups

-- Web pages

Audio & video tapes (transcribed and described)

Copies of documents
Narrative descriptions
Diaries

-- Photographs (described)

ANALYSIS

1. Read Data, develop ideas and

feelings
2. Code Data, tag items with same
meaning using a unique code
3. Search and extract instances of
codes
4. Identify patterns among codes
(pattern coding)
THEMES
5. Create figures, tables, or
descriptions of patterns

Analysis
Process of Qualitative Analysis:
Data Reduction
Data Display
Conclusion Drawing and Verification

Analysis

Coding

Coding
What is coding?
In qualitative analysis, coding is the process of
identifying categories and meanings in text, creating and
applying a name or code to each, and systematically
marking similar strings of text with the same code name.
Coding permits systematic retrieval of categories and
meanings during analysis. Codes help researchers
identify patterns in data.

Coding
One codes only relevant data (Not all text must be
coded to complete the project)
Codes may be based on:
Actions, Behaviors,Topics, Ideas, Concepts,
Terms, Phrases, Keywords, and so forth
Coding is purposeful interpretation, with mindful
reflection on the meanings of the persons, context,
interactions, statements, assumptions, and so forth

Coding
An example of
old school
coding

Source: http://onlineqda.hud.ac.uk/Intro_QDA/phpechopage_titleOnlineQDA-Examples_QDA.php

Coding
Sources of codes (typically both):
1.A priori codesexpected, looked for

Previous research
Previous theory
Research question
Your intuition of the data or setting

2.Grounded codesdiscovered
(suspend ideas about the subject and let the data determine codes)

Coding
It helps if code names are meaningful.
When new relevant content is discovered,
a new code is created.
Codes may evolve
A string of text may contain more than one
code.

Coding
Codes must be consistently applied
Keeping a list of codes helps to:
Identify the content of each code, and
Reveal the contents of the text.

Codes should be grouped in some form

(e.g., related clusters) to advance analysis

Coding

http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/209/461

Displays
Making sense of the data

Displays
There are numerous legitimate ways to move
from codes to final narrative, but core among
them is systematic work and adherence to logic.
Systematic analysis is advanced when codes
are put into data displays which reflect the
researchers judgments about the data

Data displays link various codes and help to

build themes

Displays
Thematic
network of
YouTube
comments
about Borat

Source: http://journals.culture-communication.unimelb.edu.au/platform/yecrea_2011_kaprans.html

Displays
Such arrangements help researchers:
1. dimensionalize, or recognize dimensions of similar
thoughts or
E.g., thoughts about how to appear masculine:
Clothes
Presence
Short hair
Plain shoes
Shirt with collar

-- Confidence
-- Taking up space

2. Connect codes in more sophisticated ways

3. Document patterns in user-friendly ways (never

rely on memory)

Displays
Relationships between codes become more
apparent as codes are grouped
Themes should be explored
Why do some codes co-occur?
Why are some dimensions related to other codes
while others are not?
Are some codes linked to particular emotions?

Exploration of themes is analysis. The

discoveries should be written down. These
eventually (with very heavy and serious editing)
turn into your written text.

Analysis
Process of Qualitative Analysis:
Data Reduction
Data Display
Conclusion Drawing and Verification

Drawing Conclusions and Verification

As one creates and views displays, the salient
components of meaning and activities become apparent.
Research may be:
Descriptive: Represents the data (meanings, observations) to
readers in such a way that they will understand what the
researcher sees in the data.
Causal: Links concepts in the data together to explain observed
meanings or phenomena, and to write in such a way that readers
will understand what the researcher sees.

This stage relies very heavily on logical evaluation and

systematic description

Drawing Conclusions and Verification

The researcher WRITES what he or she sees as
logical descriptions of themes

The researcher always refers back to the data

displays and raw data as descriptions or causal
statements are made.
Systematic, organized, and good coding and notes
will really pay off at this point, allowing efficient,
accurate access to data

Conclusions are made through this process

Drawing Conclusions and Verification

Articles and reports often include quotes.
They are not the text speaking for itself.
Quotes are used for:
Evidence
Explanation
Illustration
Deepening understanding
Giving participants a voice
Enhancing readability

Drawing Conclusions and Verification

In the end, like good quantitative research, good

qualitative research gives a portrayal of the human
experience that is as accurate as possible, but which
always has limitations.

Qualitative Methods

It is often difficult to plan qualitative research

Group Discussion:

Spend several minutes generating ideas for a

qualitative research study. What are you going to
study and why?
Create a plan for:

Sampling

Data Collection
Data Analysis

Introduction

How will you determine whether your sample is representative

of a target group?

How will you evaluate causality?

How will you write about or present your findings?