Electron Generation and Sources

Outline
A. Electron Beam Characteristics
B. Thermionic Emission
C. Field Emission
D. Comparison of Guns

Reading
Bozzola and Russell Chp. 6 p. 164-172
Williams and Carter, Chp. 5 p. 69-83

Electron Beam Characteristics

Four main properties that describe the quality of the electron beam in EM:

1. Brightness
2. Stability
3. Energy Spread

4. Source Size

Brightness
Brightness, (A cm-2 sr-2), is defined as the current density per unit solid
angle of the source:

1
ie
Je

2
2
2

(
d
/
2
)

o
o

o
where ie is the cathode emission current, do is the
diameter of the electron source, o is the electron
source divergence semi-angle, and Je is the
current density

Higher brightness means more

electrons put into a beam of a given
size and hence more info from the
specimen
Field Emitters can be 1-5 orders of
magnitude brighter than thermionic
sources

Current Stability
Electron current coming from the source should be stable (i.e. not changing in
time)
Thermionic sources and Thermal Field Emitters are fairly stable (<1% per
hour)

Cold field emitters are less stable and require electrical feedback circuits to
stabilize within about 5% per hour
Highly dependent on vacuum level (UHV best)
Current stability is very important for analytical EM and lithography
applications where a constant dose is crucial

This is the one property where

thermionic sources out perform field
emitters

Energy Spread
Electron sources have energy spreads ranging from 0.2 eV (Cold Field
Emitter) to 5 eV (Tungsten filament)
Energy spread small compared to 200 keV accelerating voltage
(0.0001-0.0025 %)
Important to minimize chromatic aberration effects (lens defect)
Also important for energy resolution in electron energy loss spectroscopy
(EELS)

Field Emitters have about an order of

magnitude smaller energy spread

Source Size
Ideally, the beam electrons would emit from a single
point on the filament
Perfect spatial coherency implies electrons
originating from the same point and incident on
the sample as in phase, plane wave electrons
Electrons that reach the sample appear to leave at
a point which coincides with:
The gun crossover for thermionic sources (15100 mm)
The virtual source for field emitters (10-100
nm)
Field Emitters have a much better spatial
coherency due to the small virtual
source size

Virtual Source
for FE

Electron Generation and Sources

Thermionic Emission
A. Energy Diagram and Work Function
B. Tungsten Filaments
C. LaB6 Filaments
D. Triode (Self-Biased) Gun Design
i.

Filament, Anode, Wehnelt

ii.

Saturation

iii. Gun Alignments

Thermionic Emission
When the metal is heated, the kinetic energy, K.E., of the electrons
becomes greater and some are energetic enough (i.e. o) to escape the
surface
Electrons will start to be emitted whenever the potential energy or work
function, o, equals the kinetic energy, K.E., of the most energetic
electrons

1
2
K .E . mevesc o
2

where me is the mass of the electron and vesc is the escape velocity of the
electrons

Escape Velocity
The escape velocity of the electrons, vesc, will then be:

vesc

2o

me

The escape velocity for a tungsten filament (o = 4.52 eV) is then:

vesc

2( 4.52eV )
6

0
.
0042
c

1
.
26
x
10
m / s 783miles / s
2
( 0.511MeV / c )

(3D density of states) X (Fermi

Dirac Distribution Function)

Free Electron Energy Distribution in a Metal

Thermally Emitted
Electrons

Metal

Energy

Vacuum
Continuum
Energy Levels

To obtain electron transmission, the electron must escape the surface of the
metal
The work function, o, is the potential needed to escape the surface (defined
at T = 0K) and is material dependent

Richardson Equation
In thermionic emission, the electron emission current, ie, can be related to
the temperature, T, by the Richardson equation:

ie AT exp( o / kT )
2

where
A is a constant (~120 A cm-2K-2),

o is the work function of the metal in electron volts,

k is Boltzmanns constant 8.62 x 10-5 eV K-1
And T is the temperature in K

The current is higher for higher T and lower o but too high a temperature
shortens the source lifetime via evaporation or oxidation

Work Function

Higher work function requires more work to extract electrons

Most materials either melt, vaporize, sublime, or degrade in another form
with a few eV
Need either high melting point materials or low work function

Work Function

Work function depends on crystalline structure/packing and density

tends to be lower for less dense metals

Work function also depends on crystalline orientation
tends to be higher on denser crystal faces

Work Function

W works well (~ 4.5 eV) and has a high melting point (3422oC) and boiling
point (5555oC)
LaB6 = 2.6 eV, CeB6 =2.4 eV
Monoatomic layer of ZrO on W lowers the work function to 2.8 eV (i.e.
Thermal Schottky Field Emitters

Tungsten Filaments or Hairpins

Standard electron source consists of
a W wire (diameter ~ 100 mm) welded
to two metal posts embedded in a
ceramic holder
W gun is reliable, well understood, and
inexpensive (~$10-40)
Over 70 years old but still the best
choice for low mag. imaging, EDS,
electron beam lithography applications
(~comparable to TFE)

Tungsten Filaments or Hairpins

~ 100 mm tip radius

The filament is heated by

passing an electrical current
equal to about 0.5 to 4 V
(direct resistance heating)
Optimum filament temperature
for thermionic emission of
electrons is around 2700 K
Large emitting area (~ 100 x
150 mm)

Tungsten Hairpin Filaments

Standard shapes for
different manufacturer
SEMs and TEMs
Specialized tip geometry
for performance, stability,
cost, and operating life
Pointed filaments have
shorter lifetimes but the
initial cross-over is smaller

Tungsten Filament Failure Modes

Why do filaments
often break at the
side rather than
the tip?

Assumption: the highest resistance would be at the sharply bent V and that
is where the filament would burn out
Tungsten Filament Heating Effects, P. Beauregard, Microscopy Today 15(6), Nov. 2007.

Tungsten Filament Failure Modes

A straight W wire heats up uniformly except at the ends where the
mounting posts cool or heat sink the wire
However, adjacent indirect side filament heating by the opposite
filament leg is responsible for higher temperatures at the side
As the filament evaporates, the filament thins leading to I2R resistive
heating (Joule or Ohm Law)
IR Radiation lost to
vacuum
Resistance through a

metal wire

IR Radiation heats
up the leg

A
Tungsten Filament Heating Effects, P. Beauregard, Microscopy Today 15(6), Nov. 2007.

Tungsten Hairpin Filaments

Lifetime around 40-100

hours
Failure is usually due to
mass transfer/melting
Over heating the filament
causes this to happen
faster and greatly
decreases the filament life

Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Filaments

Rod-shaped (or square-shaped) crystalline source roughly 1 mm in
diameter
<100> lattice orientation preferentially emits electrons
Pointed or truncated end ~15-20 mm
LaB6 highly reactive at elevated temperatures
Requires high vacuum (10-6-10-7 Torr)

~ 1 mm

~ 15-20 mm

Lanthanum Hexaboride (LaB6) Filaments

Source can not be directly heated

Requires special mounts and/or

heaters to provide the 1700 - 2100
K needed
Operating at higher temperatures
than needed increases evaporation
and shortens lifetime
Have to heat up slowly to avoid
thermal shock between crystal and
thermal mounts/contacts
~ 45 minutes to 1 hour for current
stability

Common LaB6 Cathode Designs Filaments

Broers
Uses a tungsten or rhenium coil
bombardment) to heat the tip by
radiation and electron bombardment
Cooled mount lessens the problems
with reactivity

http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Common LaB6 Cathode Designs Filaments

Vogel
LaB6 heated by passing a current
perpendicular to the length of the
rod
Uses rigid electrical connectors

Pyrolytic graphite used to avoid

problems with chemical reactivity

http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Common LaB6 Cathode Designs Filaments

Ferris

Rod is heated by conduction from

the ribbon
Ribbon is chemically inactive with
LaB6 (usually tantalum or graphite)

http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Common LaB6 Cathode Designs Filaments

FEI Mini Vogel Mounts
Smaller and simpler than standard Vogel
mounts
Posts made of molybdenum-rhenium alloy

Pyrolytic graphite blocks between crystal and

posts

http://www.kore.co.uk/aptech.htm#intro

http://www.rowaco.se/SV/Products/pdf/Fei/FEI
%20Emitter%20Products.pdf

LaB6 Aging
New
Typically 600 hours or
more before failing
Note the angular
appearance of the used
LaB6 source
Aged LaB6 crystal can
often wander around in
the mounting epoxy

Used (900+ hours)

Triode (Self-Biasing) Gun

Wehnelt is negatively biased
with respect to the filament
(~200V) due to variable resistor
HV, bias, the filament-Wehnelt
distance and the Wehneltanode distance
determine/control the emission
current
Anode at positive potential
(ground) relative to the cathode
and establishes the accelerating
voltage

Vbias = ie Rbias

Triode (Self-Biasing) Gun

Electrostatic potentials are
driven by the accelerating
voltage field
The gradient or direction of
the electrical field is
perpendicular to the
equipotential lines
Gun bias effectively creates
an electrostatic lens of
variable strength and focal
length providing the first
cross over

Cross Over

E V
http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Saturation of Self-Biased Gun

Saturation

Saturation:
Maximum electrons for the minimum temperature or energy
Minimum spot size
Operating above saturation reduces filament life with no added benefit
Operating below saturation reduces the brightness

Origin of Saturation
Saturation occurs because of the self-biasing
mode of operation and NOT because of
space charge effects
Saturation occurs because the self-bias
voltage reduces the emitting area as the
beam current increases
Refer to the following articles:
M. E. Haine and P. Einstein, Characteristics of the

Hot Cathode Electron Microscope Gun, British J.

Appl. Physics 3 40, 1952.
A. Eades, On the Principles of Operation of the
Thermionic Electron Gun in Electron Microscopy,
Acta Microscopica 7(1) 16, 1998.
F. Schamber, Emission Myths, Microscopy Today ,
1, Sep-Nov 1999.

Origin of Saturation
There is one equipotential,
corresponding to the potential
of the filament, which can
bend in and meet the filament
(at points A and A)
Increasing bias voltage
eventually leads to a situation
where the equipotential
corresponding to the same
voltage as the filament fails to
reach the filament
No electrons emitted

Origin of Saturation: Fixed Bias Gun

If the gun is operated in fixed bias mode, the emission area is fixed and
the beam current will be determined by the emission current density
The emission current density depends only on the temperature
As the temperature increases the beam current increases without limit
(until filament burns out)
There is no saturation
Not used in any commercial microscopes since not as stable as selfbiased gun

Origin of Saturation: Self-Biased Gun

Vbias = ie Rbias

Origin of Saturation: Self-Biased Gun

The current density depends
only on the filament
temperature but the relation is
not linear (Richardson equation)

ie AT exp( o / kT )
2

Saturation and Filament Structure

When the filament is well below
saturation, the emitting area on
the filament is large
There will be focusing and
defocusing effects arising from the
shape of the equipotentials

Far from
Saturation

Saturation

At saturation, the equipotentials

above the surface have a shape
almost unrelated to the filament
surface
Electrons emitted will be focused
in a smooth way and give a
structureless source

TEM Filament Emission Images

Saturation and Filament Structure

Change of bias and/or kV can cause a
shift in saturation point as shown
False peak at about 3.4V in the
sample current is caused by region of
filament that reaches emission
temperature before tip
Due to a layer of material which is
not stable at high temperature
Layer has a lower work function
than the filament in its high
temperature state
The emission is higher until the
layer is driven off
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~wittke/Microprobe/Column-ElectronGun.html

Stability of the Triode (Self-Biasing) Gun

Self-Biasing Mechanism
(Rbias Fixed)
Any increase in emission
current drives Wehnelt more
negative relative to the cathode,
and consequently decreases
emission current

Any decrease in emission

current drives Wehnelt more
positive and increases the
emission current
Very stable configuration

Vbias = ie Rbias

Effect of Bias on the Emission Current

(a)

(b)

(c)
(a)

No Bias
Maximum Current

(b)

(c)

Optimum Bias
Intermediate Current
Maximum Brightness

High Bias
No Current

Proper bias voltage optimizes the electron beam brightness providing the
most focused electron beam

Mechanical Alignments
Filament Centering
Filament to Wehnelt
Mechanical adjustment by screwthread adjustment

Gun Centering
Wehnelt to Anode adjustments

Gun Tilts

Also may have to adjust apertures

or lenses
Usually pre-aligned by
manufacturer
http://nsm1.fullerton.edu/~skarl/EM/Microscopy/TEMIllum.html

Electromagnetic Alignment Coils

Double Deflection Coils

Double deflection coils - Cant introduce a purely lateral shift in a beam

without deflecting it off the axis and deflecting back onto the axis
Difference between shift and tilt is the ratio of the excitation of the
upper and lower coils
John M. Rodenburg, Understanding Transmission Electron Microscope Alignment: A Tutorial, Microscopy and
Analysis, May 2004, p.9

Electromagnetic Alignment Coils

Filament Images

Filament

Aligned

Misaligned

Saturated

Image of the source can be used to align the gun assembly along the
optic axis
If the undersaturated source is asymetrical then the source is misaligned

Electromagnetic Alignment Coils

Field Emission Sources

A. Cold Field Emission (CFE)

B. Thermally-Assisted Field Emission (TFE)
C. Schottky Emitters (SE)

Cold Field Emission

If a very strong electric field is applied to a metal, it is possible to extract
electrons by the process of field emission
Electrons tunnel past the work function of the metal tip helped by the high
electrical field
Field strengths of 109-1010V/m are necessary with an unheated emitter
Easiest way to achieve this without extremely high voltages is to give emitting
surface a very high curvature:

E V / r
E 1000 V / 100 nm 1010V / m

Cold Field Emission

Emission process depends on the work function
of the metal, which can be affected by adsorbed
gases, so a very high vacuum is required (10-9-1010 Torr)
Due to vacuum fluctuations, adsorbed gases, etc.
beam current and drift are problems
CFEs periodically require flashing to removing
contaminants on the surface
Electrons are emitted from the surface, but their
apparent source (virtual source) is a single point
beneath the surface
High spatial coherence

Virtual Source

CFE Sources
Single crystal W tips electrochemically etched with radius ~10-1000 nm
Spot welded to W wire
Wires with <100> and <310> orientation give best results
Operates at ambient temperature

TFE Sources
Thermally Assisted Field Emission (TFE)
TFEs are similar to CFEs except they operate at high temperature (~1800K)
Heating a TFE has a number of advantages:

Higher energy electrons allows more electrons to tunnel at a given

extraction voltage
Helps keep the tip clean (i.e. continually baked out), reducing noise
and instability and less stringent vacuum requirement
Heating causes atom migration, changing the tip geometry and causing
maximum emission in the direction of the axis (i.e. self-sharpening)

Disadvantage to CFE:
Slightly larger tip than CFE which ultimately leads to lower resolution

Schottky Emitters
SEs are similar to TFEs in that:
They have very small tips and use extraction voltages
They operate at high temperatures
A monoatomic layer of ZrO2 is deposited on the tip from a small dispenser
which reduces the W work function from 4.5 to 2.8 eV
However unlike TFEs, SEs are technically thermionic sources

http://www.feibeamtech.com/pages/schottky.html

Energy Diagrams
Thermionic Emission
Often convenient,
depending on the
situation, to rotate
energy diagrams:
Number of
electrons vs
Energy

Energy vs Number
of electrons

Zoomed In

Energy Diagram with an Applied

Potential

Vacuum barrier is rounded due to small electric field created between free
electrons and opposite charge left behind in the metal
In addition, the vacuum barrier falls off with increasing distance due to a
positive electrode

Energy Diagram for an Applied Potential

The reduced work function, F , is the effective work function in the

presence of an applied electric field

What happens as we increase the applied electric field?

Energy Diagram for CFE and TFE

Electron
Wavefunction

High energy tail is still lower than the reduced work function not
thermionic emission!
Electron quantum mechanical effects
Electron wavefunction overlaps past vacuum barrier allowing tunneling
Governed by Fowler-Nordheim equations (similar to STM)

Energy Diagram for SE

SE emitters use the field at the tip to reduce the effective work function
High energy tail is greater than the reduced work function Field Assisted
Thermionic Emission

Field Emission Gun Design

V1 ~ 1 - 5 kV

V0 ~ 0.1 - 200 kV

1st anode is extractor

~ 2kV to extract electrons from the tip by tunneling
Increasing extraction should be done slowly so the mechanical shock
doesnt fracture the tip
2nd anode accelerates the electrons to their final accelerating voltage
http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Field Emission Gun Design

V1 ~ 1 - 5 kV

V0 ~ 0.1 - 200 kV

The combined fields act as an electrostatic lens providing the first cross over
This lens controls source size and position (Lens aberrations important)
In practice, another electromagnetic lens is incorporated to give more control
over the cross over
http://www.sem.com/analytic/sem.htm

Schottky Emitters: Zeiss Neon 40 EsB

Suppressor (-300V potential)

EHT = Electron High Tension = Accelerating Voltage

Extractor V = Extraction Voltage on 1st Anode

Ext I = Extraction Current on 1st Anode

Upon applying EHT (Accelerating Voltage), Ext I goes down since
electron lost to the first cross-over (beam forming electrons)
Beam I = Ext I (Beam Off) Ext I (Beam On)
Extraction Ratio = Ext I (Beam On)/Ext I (Beam Off) = Measurement
of the Health of the Filament

Fil I = Filament Current to heat the emitter

Ext I = Extraction Current on 1st Anode

Comparison of Electron Sources

Tungsten
Filament

Lanthanum
Hexaboride
(LaB6)

Field Emission

Emission

Thermionic

Thermionic

Electrostatic Field

Operating vacuum

10-4 - 10-5

10-6 - 10-7

10-9 - 10-10

Brightness (A cm-2 sr-1)

10+4 - 10+5

10+5 - 10+6

10+7 - 10+9

Source size (m)

100 m

20 m

<10 nm

Energy spread (eV)

1-5

0.5 - 3

0.2 - 0.3

Current Stability

0.1 - 1.0%/hour

0.2 - 2.0%/hour

2 - 10% / min

Operating life (hrs)

> 20

> 100 (600)

> 2000 (8000)

Cost (each)

$20

$1,250

$2,500

Tungsten has the worst operating characteristics but reliable, cheap, robust,
and easy to replace
LaB6 sources are 10 times brighter than W, operate at lower T due to smaller
work function, have a smaller source size and energy spread, and longer
lifetime, but costs much more and needs higher vacuum

Comparison of Electron Sources

CFEs have the smallest source size and energy spread (high temporal and
spatial coherence), and the largest brightness but suffer from low stability and
need for UHV
TFEs and SEs are more stable (<0.5%/hr), have a longer lifetime, and have
slightly less stringent vacuum requirements than FEs

Future Sources?
Nanotip field emitters can
increase brightness by 50100X compared to standard
FEG
Ideally suited for low energy
operation (< 500 eV)
Small source size ideal for
making small spots
Nanotips are cold FEGs,
cannot by flashed and have
unknown lifetimes
CNT as field emitters?

Nanotip Field Emitter

Rick Silver, NIST

D. C. Joy, CD-SEM and beyond, ULSI Presentation, March 2005.

Carbon Nanotube Field Emitters

Carbon Nanotube attached to

end of tungsten tip with glue
from carbon tape
High resolution TEM image of
CNT indicates a radius of 2.7
nm

High brightness electron beam from a multi-walled carbon nanotube, N. de Jonge, Y. Lamy, K. Schoots, and T. H.
Oosterkamp, Nature 420 p. 393 (2002).

Carbon Nanotube Field Emitters

Energy Spread of CNT Tip
Smaller radius means a
much lower extraction
voltage
More stable due to its
material properties so
can allow EELS, etc.
with good energy
resolution

High brightness electron beam from a multi-walled carbon nanotube, N. de Jonge, Y. Lamy, K. Schoots, and T. H.
Oosterkamp, Nature 420 p. 393 (2002).

Carbon Nanotube Field Emitters

Fresnel Interference Pattern
Virtual source
size was
determined to be
2.1 +/- 0.2 nm
from the Fresnel
interference
pattern

High brightness electron beam from a multi-walled carbon nanotube, N. de Jonge, Y. Lamy, K. Schoots, and T. H.
Oosterkamp, Nature 420 p. 393 (2002).

Figures of Merit
Brightness and Energy Spread

Figures of merit for the CNT emitter

High brightness electron beam from a multi-walled carbon nanotube, N. de Jonge, Y. Lamy, K. Schoots, and T. H.
Oosterkamp, Nature 420 p. 393 (2002).