SD 470: Design of Bridges

4. BASIC BRIDGE ENGINEERING DESIGN

Lecture No. 5

Summary of Design Steps

The design of bridges generally involves the following:- Preliminary design
- Final design
The stages involved in preliminary and final design steps are as summarized
below in the following paragraphs:Initial stage
Review of the design procedure in which it includes; Data collection for design of
relevant parameters, Selection of the appropriate bridge structure and
Assumptions of section outlines.
Load calculation
Number of notional lanes, Dead loading, HA loading, HB loading, HA and HB
loading, Footpath loading, wind load, load combinations and Load factors.

Analysis stage
Determination of Shear forces, Bending moments, Combined shear force envelope,
and combined bending moment envelope.
Design stage
Specifying Material properties, Section properties, Section design. Other optional
design parameters, Final design, Detailing, checking, Approval of design, Construction,
and finally Design variations during construction.
In terms of components, the structural design involves:
Design of Slab or Deck, Longitudinal Beams/Girders, Cross beams-Bearings, Piers and
Abutments, Foundations, Guard rails and joints.
Collection of data for relevant parameters
Road classification- Span of bridge, width of the road, design codes, materials
availability, available equipment, available skilled labour, existing bridge structures
existing civil engineering structures, etc.
Bridge Type Selection
Steel bridge, Timber bridge, Reinforced Concrete bridge, Prestressed Concrete bridge,
Composite construction, Cable Stayed, Suspension bridge, Truss bridge, or Arch
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bridge.

No

Bridge

Materials
RC

PSC

Support System
Steel

Simple

Continuous

Slabs

8m

Slabs

Voided slabs

Voided slabs

Beams

Beams

10 - 70m

Haunched beams

Up to 250m

Steel girders

50m

Arch

20 - 50m

10

Arch

20 - 400m

11

Truss

40 - 400m

12

Cable stayed

13

Suspension

14

Timber beam

15

Timber truss

20m

10 - 20m
X

20 - 30m

10 - 25m

260m

200 - 700m
X

Over 500m
Up to 6m
Up to 45m

Preliminary design
This involves determination of initial dimensions and design
elements such as reinforcements, rivets, bolts, welding, etc.
These dimensions are to be adjusted later in the final or
intermediate design
It serves time not to start directly with the detailed final design.
But all design parameters are considered
All design steps are the same as for the final design
Computer programs can help in shortening the design time.
Assumptions and outline section
Outline sketch plan of the bridge
Outline sketch of the transverse section of the bridge
Outline sketch of the longitudinal section of the bridge
Identification of the beams and slabs
Thickness of the surfacing
Guardrails and parapets
Assumed span of the beams
Assumed beam spacing

Loads for Bridge Design

Dead load; which comprises of:
Self weights of bridge elements
The densities of the materials used are as follows:Concrete:
24kN/m3
Steel:
78.5kN/m3
Timber:
4-8 kN/m3
Hollow bricks:
15kN/m3
Solid bricks
22kN/m3
Natural stones or rock:
20-28kN/m3
Railways ballast:
19 kN/m3
Imposed dead load, such as;
Wearing surface,
Railway tracks,
Guardrails,
Prestressing force
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Vertically imposed loads such as:

Impact
Weight of vehicles, etc.
Transverse imposed loads such as:
Skidding,
Centrifugal forces in curves
Wind loads
Longitudinal imposed loads such as:Braking forces,
Acceleration forces
Constraining imposed loads such as:Due to temperature changes
Shrinkage
Creep
Pier settlements
Friction forces in the bearings
Collision forces
Earthquake loads

Highway Bridge Live Loads

HA loading: is the basic imposed load comprising of
A uniformly distributed load
A knife-edge load
HA loading includes a 25% allowance for impact
The intensity of which depends upon the loaded length
No dispersal of load beneath contact area
Knife-edge load is positioned to have the most severe effect,
Alternatively a single 100 kN load with 340mm or 300mm x 300 mm square
contact area
.

Table: 2: Notional lanes for design purposes according to the carriageway width

Carriage Width
W(m)

< 4.6

4.6-7.5

7.6-11.4

11.4-152

15.2-19.0

No.of Notional
Lanes

W/3

5
8

HA Loading
The (BD 37/01) Design Manual for Roads and Bridges says that Type HA loading is
the normal design loading for Great Britain and adequately covers the effects of all
permitted normal vehicles other than those used for abnormal indivisible loads.
Normal vehicles are governed by the Road Vehicles (Authorised Weight)
Regulations 1998, referred to as the AW Vehicles and cover vehicles up to 44 tonne
gross vehicle weight. Loads from these AW vehicles are represented by a uniformly
distributed load and a knife edge load. The loading has been enhanced to cover:
i) impact load (caused when wheels 'bounce' i.e. when stricking potholes).
ii) overloading
iii) Lateral bunching (more than one vehicle occupying the width of a lane).
The magnitude of the uniformly distributed load is dependent on the loaded length
as determined from the influence line for the member under consideration. For
simply supported decks this usually relates to the span of the deck.

Table 3: HA Loading
Loaded length L (m)

< 30m

30m - 379m

> 379m

Uniform Load
(kN/m/Lane)
Knife edge load (kN/Lane)

30

151 L-0.475

9
120

K E L

U D L

KEL

U D L

10

Figure 1: HA Loading

HA Loading
100 kN

340

Figure 2: Alternative to HA KEL loading

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HB Loading
The (BD 37/0) Design Manual for Roads and Bridges in UK says that
Type HB loading requirements derive from the nature of exceptional
industrial loads (e.g. electrical transformers, generators, pressure
vessels, machine presses, etc.) likely to use the roads in the area.
The vehicle load is represented by a four axled vehicle with four wheels
equally spaced on each axle. The load on each axle is defined by a
number of units which is dependant on the class of road. Motorways and
trunk roads require 45 units, Principal roads require 37.5 units and other
public roads require 30 units. Each unit is equivalent to 10kN.

12

HB Loading
HB loading is used for bridges which are on public highways where they may be
subjected to abnormal loads that are greater than those arising from HA
loading
- A 16 wheel vehicle is specified
- Load/wheel is 2.5 j kN, where j is the number of HB units
- The HB loading can be from 25 HB to 45 HB units
E.g. 25 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1000 kN or 100 tons vehicle
45 units x 2.5 x 16 wheels = 1800 kN or 180 tons vehicle
The actual units to be used for a particular bridge are usually specified by the
authority concerned in the respective country
- HB loading also includes a 25% allowance for impact
- The length of the vehicle is varied for the severest effect by
dimensions shown in Figure 3.
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0 .2 5

1 .0 0

1 .0 0

1 .0 0

0 .2 5

HB Loading

0 .2

Figure 3:

1 .8 0

HB Vehicle

6, 11, 16, 21, 26

1 .8 0

0 .2

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Combination of HA and HB Loading

L o a d e d le n g th fo r in te n s ity o f H A
25 m

25 m

N o Lo ad
H B V e h ic le
F u ll H A
F u ll H A
C e n tra l r e s e rv e : N o lo a d fo r g lo b a l a n a ly s is
1 /3 H A
N o Lo ad

N o tio n a l
Lanes

F u ll H A

U D L

1 /3 H A
Figure 4: A combination of HA and HB loading: HB within one notional lane

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Combination of HA and HB Loading

L o a d e d le n g th fo r in te n s ity o f H A U D L

1 /3 H A
F u ll H A

No Load

25 m

H B V e h ic le

No Load

1 /3 H A
F u ll H A

C e n tra l r e s e rv e : N o lo a d fo r g lo b a l a n a ly s is
1 /3 H A

N o tio n a l
Lanes

25 m

1 /3 H A
Figure 5: A combination of HA and HB loading; HB occupying two notional lanes

Figs 4 and 5 give an overview of both HA and HB loading

Lane loads are interchangeable for severest effect
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Reduced loads for secondary roads

Simple, one lane bridges in rural areas may be designed using the
reduced vertical load as shown in Figure 6.
5 4 .5 k N

1 3 .5 k N

1 .8 0 m

0 .3 5

0 .1 5

5 4 .5 k N

1 3 .5 k N
4 .2 5 m

2 -R e a r w h e e ls

Figure 6:

2 - F ro n t w h e e ls

T o ta l L o a d : 1 3 6 k N

Reduced vertical loads for secondary roads.

17

Pedestrian and Cycle Track Bridges

The imposed load on pedestrian and cycle track bridges is uniformly distributed
and depends upon the loaded lengths as follows:
If L 30m then P = 5 kN/m2
If 30 < L < 379m then P = 25.2 (L) -0.475 kN/m2
If L > 379m then P = 1.5 kN/m2
In the case of footpaths on road bridges which are not protected from highway
traffic by any effective barrier, any four wheels of 25 units of HB loading acting
alone in any unfavourable position should be considered.

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Transverse loads arise when a vehicle moves in a curve.

The forces considered above all act vertically according to the law of gravity. When
a vehicle moves at a speed of not less than 80 km/hr in a curve, a centrifugal
force, Fc, acting in the transverse section of the bridge and directed away from the
curve center results. The resultant force is defined by the expression:

m .v 2
Fc
where
m R =

mass of vehicle in Tons

v
=
speed of vehicle in m/s
R
=
radius of curve in m.
BS 5400 Part 2 gives a nominal centrifugal load defined by:

30000
Fc
kN
R 150
where R is the same as above
The force Fc can be applied as a single load or subdivided into 1/3F c and 2/3Fc
then placed at 5.0m c/c longitudinally in combination with a vertical load of 300kN.
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Accidental load due to skidding

On straight and curved bridges, a single point load in one single lane in the direction
of the highway shall be considered in which the nominal load is 250 kN
Longitudinal load due to braking and traction
-The nominal load for HA shall be 8 kN/m of loaded length plus
200 kN but < 700 kN applied to an area of one notional lane x
loaded length.
- The nominal load for HB shall be 25% total nominal HB load
applied between the 8 wheels of two axles of the vehicle 1.8 m apart.
Loads due to Temperature Variations
The coefficient of thermal expansion shall be taken as 12 x 10-6 for structural steel
and concrete, but if limestone aggregates are used then a value of 7 x 10-6 can be
used. Expansion joints can be determined using these coefficients.

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Accidental wheel loads: This loading applies to local effects and shall not be taken
into account in determining global effects on the deck.
40 kN

50 kN

30 kN

40 kN

50 kN

30 kN

Figure 7: Accidental wheel loads

21

Pier impact (Technical Memorandum BE 1/77):

225 kN normal to carriageway with 75 kN parallel to carriageway at guardrail
fixing level or 750mm above carriageway where there is no fixing,
Plus 150 kN normal to carriageway with 150 kN parallel to
carriageway between 1.0m and 3.0m above carriageway level.
Collision loads on supports of bridges over highways (BS 5400: Part 1):
150 kN normal to carriageway with 50 kN parallel to carriageway at guardrail
fixing level or 750 above carriageway where there is no fixing,
Plus 100 kN normal to carriageway with 100kN parallel to
carriageway between 1.000 and 3.000 above carriageway.

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Load combinations
Three principal and two secondary combinations of loads are specified in BS
5400: Part 2:1978:

Principal combinations
Combination 1: permanent + imposed loads
Combination 2: permanent + imposed + wind loads
Combination 3: permanent + imposed + constraining loads

Secondary Combinations
Combination 4: permanent + collision loads
Combination 5: permanent + friction loads at bearings
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Partial Safety Factors to be Taken for Each Load

Combination
Table 4: Loads to be taken in each combination with appropriate L
Load

Limit
state

Clause
number
5.1

1
Dead

Steel
Concrete

5.2
5.1.2.2 &
52.2.2

L to be considered in

Superimposed dead
Reduced load factor for
dead and superimposed
dead load where this has a
more severe total effect

ULS*
SLS
ULS*
SLS
ULS*
SLS
ULS
SLS

combinations
2
3
4

1.05 1,05
1.00 1,00
1,15 1,15
1.00 1,00
1,75 1.75
1.20 1,20
1.00 1,00

1.05
1.00
1,15
1.00
1,75
1,20
1,00

1,05
1,00
1,15
1,00
1,75
1,20
1,00

5
1.05
1.00
1,15
1.00
1.75
1,20
1,00

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5.2

Wind:
During erection

ULS

1,10

SLS

1,00

With dead plus superimposed dead load

only and for members primarily resisting
wind loads
With dead plus superimposed dead plus
other appropriate combination 2 loads

ULS
SLS

1,40
1,00

ULS
SLS

1,10
1,00

Relieving effect of Wind

ULS

1,00

SLS

1,00
25

5.3

5.6

Temperature

Restraint due to range

ULS
SLS

1,30
1,00

Frictional bearing restraint

ULS
SLS

1,30
1,00

Effect of temperature
difference

ULS
SLS

1,00
0,80

ULS
SLS

To be assessed and
agreed between the
engineer and appropriate
authority

Differential settlement

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5.8

Earth
pressure

Retained fill and/or live

load surcharge

ULS

1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50 1,50

SLS

1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

Relieving effect

ULS

1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00 1,00

5.9

Erection: temporary loads

6.2

Live loading:
HA alone

HA with HB or HB alone

ULS

1,15 1,15

ULS

1,50

1,25

1,25

SLS

1,20

1,10

1,00

ULS

1,30

1,00

1,10
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6.5

Centrifugal load and associated primary live load

ULS
SLS

1,50
1,00

6.6

Longitudinal
load:

HA and associated primary live

load

ULS
SLS

1,25
1,00

HB and associated primary live

load

ULS
SLS

1,10
1,00

6.7

Accidental skidding load and associated primary live

load

ULS
SLS

1,25
1,00

6.8

Vehicle collision load with bridge parapets and

associated primary live load

ULS
SLS

1,25
1,00

6.9

Vehicle collision load with bridge supports**

ULS
SLS

1,25
1,00

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Foot/cycle track bridges: live

load and parapet load

ULS

1,50

1,25

1,25

1,25

SLS

1,00

1,00

1,00

1,00

1,40

1,20

1,20

1,10

1,00

1,00

Railway bridges: type RU and ULS

RL primary and secondary
SLS
live

* L shall be increased to at least 1.10 and 1.20 for steel and concrete respectively to
compensate for inaccuracies when dead loads are not accurately assessed
L may be reduced to 1.2 and 1.0 for the ULS and SLS respectively subject to approval
of the appropriate authority
** This is the only secondary live load to be considered for foot/cycle track bridges

29

Design Internal Actions

Load Cases:
Case 1: Maximum mid span moment
Case 2:: Maximum end span moment
Case 3: Maximum over support moment
Case 4: Maximum shear force at piers
Case 5: Maximum shear force at abutments

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