Consumer

Behaviour

Consumer Behavior is the behavior that the

consumers display in searching for,
purchasing, using ,evaluating and disposing of
products ,services and ideas which they
expect will satisfy their needs.

Consumer Behaviour refers to how consumer

behaves or acts or reacts in making a

purchase of goods and services of his choice
in different situations .
Importance of Consumer Behaviour
To consumers
To Marketeers

The Various Disciplines having influence on consumer Behaviour

Economics

Demand,Supply,Income,Purc
hasing Power

Psychology

Needs &
Motivation,Personality,Perceptio
n ,Learning,Attitudes

Sociology

Society ,Social
class,Power,Esteem,Status

Socio Psychology

Group Behaviour,confirmity to
group norms,Group
influences,role of a leader

Cultural Anthropology

Values,Beliefs,Caste System,Joint
family system

Characteristics of Indian
consumers
Geography
Population
Urban rural composition
Sex composition
Age factor
Literacy level
Income level
Linguistic Diversity
Religion
Dress,food habits & festival

Factors Influencing consumer behaviour

Cultural
Factors

Social Factors Personal

factors

Psychological
factors

1.Culture
2.Sub culture
3.Social class

1.Reference
group
2.Family
3.Role & Status

1.Motivation
2.Perception
3.Learning
4.Beliefs &
Attitude

1.Age & stage

of Life cycle
2.Occupation
3.Economic
circumstances
4.Life style
5.Personality &
self concept

Models of consumer
Behaviour
Economic model
Psychological model
Learning model S-R Model
Sociological model
Howard sheth model
Nicosia Model
Webster & Wind model
Engel kollat blackwell model

Economic model
Under economics it is assumed that man is a rational human
being,who will evaluate all the alternatives in terms of cost
& value received and select that product /service which
gives him/her max satisfaction. Consumers are assumed to
follow the law of diminishing marginal utility.
Economic model is based on certain predictions of buying
behaviour 1.price effect lesser the price of the product
,more will be the quantity purchased
2.Lesser the price of the substitute product,lesser will be the
quantity of the orginal product bought(Substitution effect).
3.Income effect-more the purchasing power ,more will be the
quantity purchased

Motivation may be said to be the driving force behind human

behaviour.
Maslow has made a framework of a set of heirachy of human
needs and explained the strength of certain needs ,which is
given here under.
1.Physiological basic needs lik food,water and shelter
2.Safety-Insurance policy
3.Social-self of belongingness
4.Esteem-park avenue,Car
5.Self Actualisation-to become everything one is capable of

Learning Model
Pavlovian Learning Model
According to this model,behaviour is learned by repetitive
associations between a stimulus and response (S-R Association).
The model is based on a experiment performed on a dog by a russian
physiologist.This experiment is based on how a dog responds
(measured on the basis of saliva secreted by the dog)to various
conditional stimulus and unconditioinal stimulus(ringing of a bellpresenting a piece of meat).Knowing the learning process is very
important for a marketing manager.
Learning can be defined as all changes in behaviour which occurs as
a result of practise and based on previous experience.

Sociological Model
Acc to this model individual buyer is a part of the
institution called Society.Since he is living in a
society,he gets influenced by it and in turn also
influences it in its path of development.He is
playing many roles as a part of various formal &
informal associations or organisations i.e as a
family,as a employee of a firm,as a member of
professional forum .such interactions leave some
impressions on him and may play a role in
influencing his buying behaviour.

Howard Sheth Model

The model bascially serves two purposes
It indicates how complex the whole question
of consumer behaviour really is
It provides a framework for including various
concepts like learning,perception,attitude
etc..which play a role in influencing consumer
behaviour

Inputs in Howard sheth theory.

These cues may be Significative if it comes to the buyer
from the product itself when he is involved in a shopping
activity.A similar set of cues which are symbolic in nature
may also act as information sources.Both these significative
and symbolic information cues represent the firms
marketing efforts..these are impersonal sources lik mass
communication,advertising etc.
Third source is social information cues which could affect the
buying behaviour towards the product or brand and these
include family,friends or other members of the group with
which the buyer comes into contact.The social source is
personal and has no control over this source.

Perceptual constructs :This refers to all the complex states or

psycological processes (perception)and how the individual deals

with the information cues received from various sources.
Learning constructs:-Second set of hypothetical constructs in
this theory are more complex and numerous .Motives referes to
the goal the individual attempts to achievie through his or her
buying behaviour.most closely related to the buyers intention is
his attitude towars the product /brand.other learning constructs
include brand comprehension i.e knowledge /awareness about
the brand features that forms the basis for the buyers evoked set
of alternatives ,choice criteria and the confidence the individual
has about that brand .Finally the model includes a construct
satisfaction .This refers to feedback mechanism i.e post purchase
and post use evaluation of the output of the process.

Nicosia Model
This model was developed in 1966 by Nicosia an expert in consumer
motivation and behaviour.The nicosia model tries to explain buyer
behaviour by establishing a link between the organisation and its
consumer.
The nicosia model groups the above activity explanations into four
basic areas.
1.Field one has two subareas-the consumer attributes and the firm
attributes the advertising msg sent from the company will reach the
consumers attributes. Depending on the way the msg is is received
by the consumer ,a certain attribute may develop. The newly
developed attributes becomes the input for area two.
2.The second area or area two-is related to the search & evaluation
undertaken by the consumer.
3.Third area explains how the consumers actually buys the product.
4.Area four is related to the uses of the purchased items.

Webster & wind model

This is a complex model developed by F.E.Webster and
Y.wind as an attempt to explain the multifaceted nature
of organisational buying behaviour .This model refers to
the environmental ,organisational,interpersonal &
individual buying determinants which influences the
organisational buyers.These determinants influence both
the individual and group decision making processes and
on the final buying decisions.
The environmental determinants comprise of the physical &
technological factors,economic ,political,legal and socio
cultural environmental factors.These are external factors
which cannot be controlled,but an understanding of the
same may be crucial to succeed.

An individual may be involved in one or more buying

roles during organisational buying :These roles are
Users
Influencers
Buyers
Deciders
Gate keepers
This model is valuable contribution and helps in revealing
the whole range of direct & indirect influences which
affect the organisational buying behaviour.

Engel Kollat Black well

Model
This model talks of consumer behaviour as a decision making
process in the form of five steps which occur over a period
of time.
The 5 steps involved in decision making making process stage
are :
1.Problem recognition
2.Information Search
3.Alternative evaluation
4.Choice

Diffusion of innovations
Diffusion of innovation is the process by which
acceptance of an innovation is spread by
communication (mass media,sales
people,informal conversation)to members of the
target market over a period of time.
The Diffusion Process

Types of decision making

1.Routinised response Behaviour/Habitual
2.Limited problem solving
3.Extensive problem solving

Stages in buyer decision process

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.

Problem Recognition
Information search
Evaluation of Alternatives
Purchase decision
Post purchase Behaviour

Buyer Decision process towards

New products
Stages of adapting New Products
1. Awareness
2. Interest
3. Evaluation
4. Trial
5. Adoption

Individual Differences in
innovativeness
40.00%
35.00%
30.00%
25.00%
20.00%
15.00%
10.00%
5.00%
0.00%

Column2

Category of Adoptors
1.Innovators
2.Early adopters
3.Early Majority
4.Late Majority
5.Laggards

What is a Brand
Brand is a comprehensive term and could be

a name,sign,symbol,logo etc which is used to

differentiate the product or services of one
seller/sellers from those of competitors .

Industrial /organisational Buying

Behaviour
According to Fredrick E Webster and Yoram
Wind have defined organisational buying as
the decision making process by which formal
organisations establish the need for
purchased products and services and
identity ,evaluate and choose among
alternative brands & suppliers.

Characteristics of Industrial Markets

Fewer Buyers
Larger Buyers
Geographically concentrated Buyers
Derived Demand
Inelastic Demand
Fluctuating Demand
Professional Buying
Direct purchasing
Reciprocal Buying

Buying Decisions involved in industrial

Buying
Types of Buying Situations
Straight routine Rebuy- Electricity, water ,gas,

cigrattes
Modified Rebuy- New car, electrical

components, computer terminal, consultancy

service
Completely new task with negotiation-

complex buildings, damns, custom built office

Factors influencing industrial buying

Behaviour
Environmenta
l

Organistional

Interpersonal

Individual
Participant

Level of
demand

Objectives

Authority

Age

Economic
outlook

Policies

Status

Income

Value of money

procedures

Empathy

Educational
qualification

Supply
conditions

Organisational
structure

persuasiveness

Job position

Technology
improvement

Organisational
system followed

Political
Environment
Competition

personality
Attitude towars
risk

Stages in industrial Buying process

Problem Recognition
General need description
Product specification
Supplier search
Proposal solicitation
Supplier selection
Order routine Specification
Performance to add to customer value

Opinion Leadership
Opinion Leadership is a process by which one
person informally influences the actions or
attitudes of others, who may be opinion
seekers .The influence is informal & verbal
through communication between opinion
leader & opinion seeker.

Characteristic opinion
Leaders
Social status characteristics
Greater Exposure to mass media
Greater interest & knowledge
Personality traits
Attitudes & intentions
Loyal to group standards
Innovators
Demographic Characteristics

Opinion Leaders & firms promotional

strategy
Advertisement that stimulate opinion leadership
To arouse product related discussionsbetween
friends if they find it good.
To develop highly entertaining and emotional
campaigns that consumers engage in
discussions about the product.
To secure high visibility of the item such as
demonstration of the product.

Reference Group
Reference group can designate to any person or

group that serves as a point of comparison for an

individual informing either general or specific values
,attitudes or behaviour.
Reference group is a type of group that an
individual uses as a point of reference in
determining his own judgements,prefrences,beliefs ,
and behaviour.
Advantages of reference group appeal
Better communication & increased brand awareness
Reduces perceived Risk.

Types of reference groups

Normative Reference Group: refrence group that directly

influences behaviour
Ex: childs reference group is his family.
Comparative reference group :Ex: individual may admire his
neighbour
Indirect reference groups such as film star
Contactual group: person interacts & has regular contact .Ex: club
Aspirational Groups: at times ppl get influenced by groups to
which they do not belong
Ex:Teenage cricket player wanting to play for India.
Avoidance group: group in which the person holds no membership
nor has face to face contact but he disapproves of the groups
values ,attitudes ,behaviour etc.Ex:ISKON

Family
Two or more persons related by blood ,marriage
or adaption who reside together.
Family role structure
Initiator-who recognises the need
Influencers who persuades others in
purchase
Information Gatherer who gathers information
about the product
Decider-who decides purchase
Buyer-who makes actual purchase

Gate Keeper-is the person who control the

flow of products into the family

User- who uses the product
Maintainer who maintains durables
Disposer- Who disposes the product

Attitude
Attitude s are an expression of inner feelings

about a person, product, service, brand or store

that reflects whether a person is favorably or
unfavorably predisposed to a product.
Nature of attitudes
Attitudes refers to feelings or beliefs of individuals
Feelings & beliefs are directed towards other ppl
Attitude tend to result in behavior
All ppl irrespetive of their status or intelligence
hold attitudes

Formation of Attitudes
Direct experience with the object:

Ex:if everyone who has held a job has been

promoted within 6months,current job holders
are likely to believe that they will also be
promoted within 6mts.
Classical conditioning & Attitudes: pavlov
experiment
Operant conditioning: attitudes are reinforced
Family & peer group : a person learns
attitudes through imitation of his parents.
Economic status & occupation

Changing attitudes
Ways of changing attitudes

Personality & Self

concept
Personality is a unique combination of factors in

persons. These factors may be self

confidence,dominance,autonomy,defence,sociability,d
efensiveness &adaptability. Personality has been
viewed by theorists in a number of ways. Some have
emphasized the dual influence of heredity and early
childhood experiences on personality development;
some others have emphasized that broader social, and
environmental influences make up the personality.
Personality is the inner psychological characteristic
that both determine & reflect how a person responds to
his or her environment.

Nature of personality
Personality Is the essence of individual

differences.
Personality is consistent & enduring
Personality can change.

Self concept/Image/Perception
Self is closely related to consumer

behaviour.Self image is the image a person

has about himself or herself as a certain kind
of person with certain
characteristics,traits,habits,possessions,relatio
nships and behaviour.what a person thinks
about himself is his self image because he
behaves in the manner in which he perceives
himself.if he thinks himself to be a king,he will
behave like a king in purchasing.

Theories of Development of self concept

Self Appraisal:-Under this theory an individual appraises his

behaviour as to what is social and what is unsocial and

repeated confirmation develops his own image.
Reflected Appraisal:-This theory says that what appraisals a
person receives from others ,he moulds his self
concept.These others are significant others such as
parents,friends etc.
Social Comparision:-This theory depends on how individuals
see themselves in comparison to others in the society.
Biased Scanning:-This theory views self concept
development in terms of identity inspiration and biased
scanning of environment for information to confirm how
well a person is meeting his own perception.

Self concept & consumer Behaviour

Self image has a great influence on consumer
behaviour.
He purchases products or buys certain

brands-reflect his image.

Choose store which confirm their self image.

Different types of self

Actual self:- what he actually thinks of himself.
Ideal self :- what one would ideally like to be
Social self:- What he believes others actually

perceive him to be.

Ideal social self :- perception of ones image
as he would like others to have of him.

Consumer behaviour Audit is a fundamental

part of the marketing planning process.It is
conducted not only at the beginning of the
process ,but also at a series of points
during the implementation of the
plan.Consumer behaviour audit considers
both internal & external influences on
marketing planning,as well as review of the
plan itself.

Consumer Behaviour
Audit
The Consumer Behavior Audit is divided into the following sections:
MARKET SEGMENTATION

A. External Influences
B. Internal Influences
C. Situational Influences
D. Decision-Process Influences
PRODUCT POSITION

A. Internal Influences
B. Decision-Process Influences
PRICING

A. External Influences
B. Internal Influences
C. Situational Influences
D. Decision-Process Factors

DISTRIBUTION STRATEGY
A. External Influences
B. Internal Influences
C. Situational Influences
D. Decision-Process Factors
PROMOTIONAL STRATEGY
A. External Factors
B. Internal Factors
C. Situational Influences
D. Decision-Process Influences
PRODUCT
A. External Influences
B. Internal Influences
C. Situational Influences
D. Decision-Process Influences

Consumer Research
Process
Major steps in Research process include
Determining the objectives of the Reasearch
Situational Analysis
Collecting & Evaluating Data
Designing a primary research study
Analysing the data
Preparing a report on the findings
Follow up action

Types of Research
Action Research
Descriptive Research
Exploratory studies
Historical Research
Comparative Research
Theory construction Research
Model Building Research
Pure Research
Applied Research
Operations Research
Library Research
Individual & Group Research

Steps in Research

Formulating the Research problem

Extensive literature survey
Development of working Hypothesis
Preparing Research Design
Determining Sample Design
1.
2.
3.
4.

Deliberate Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling

5.Quota Sampling
6.cluster Sampling & Area Sampling
7.Multistage sampling
8.Sequential Sampling
Collecting Data
1. By observation
2. Through Personal Interviews
3. By Mailing Questionnaires
4. Through Telephone Interviews
5. Through Schedules

Evaluation of Project
Hypothesis Testing
Generalisation & Interpretation
Preparation of the Report

Criteria of Good Research

The purpose of the research should be clearly defined.
The Research procedure used should be described in

sufficient detail to permit another researcher to repeat

the research for further advancement.
The procedure of Design should be clearly planned to
yield results that are as objective as possible.
Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and the method of Analysis used
should be appropriate.
The validity of the data should be checked carefully.
Conclusions should be confirmed to those justified by
the data of the research.

Research Design
An Architect prepares a blue print before he

approves a construction.
An Army prepares a strategy before an attack
An Artist makes a design before he executes
his ideas
So also a Researcher makes a plan of his
study before he undertakes his Research
Work. This will enable a researcher to save
time & Resources.
Research Design Indicates a plan of action to
be carried out in connection with a proposed

Dependant Variable: if one variable depends

upon or is a consequence of the other

variable,it is termed as dependant
variable,and the variable antecedent to the
dependant variable is termed as
Independent variable.
Ex if we say height is dependant on Age.
Height is dependant variable & Age is
independent variable.

Major Steps in Preparing Research

Design
Review of earlier Literature
Source of Information to be tapped
Development of Bibliography
Nature of the study
Objective of the study
Geographical areas to be covered
Time dimension of the study
Dimension of the study
Basis for selecting the Data
Techniques of Study
Establish the reliability and validity of the test instrument
Chapter Scheme

Factors Affecting Research Design

Availability of sufficient data
Proper exposure to the source of data

,especially primary data

Availability of Time
Availability of Money and Man power
The Ability ,skill ,knowledge and technical
background of the researcher.

Types of Research Design

We can classify the Research Design into three broad
categories:Exploratory Research Design:-is useful when the Researcher
lacks a clear idea of the problems he will meet during the
study.Through exploration the researcher develops concepts
more clearly ,establish priorities, and improve the final
research design.In such type of research ,the researcher use
the following four research techniques:1. Secondary data analysis
2. Experience survey
3. Focus groups
4. Two stage Designs

Descriptive & Diagnostic Research Design:-Those

studies which are concerned with study of present

status or characteristics of a particular individual
or group is called a descriptive studies.Those
research studies which determine the frequency
with which something occurs or its association
with something is called as diagnostic
research.Generally diagnostic research investigate
whether two variables are co related or not.But
descriptive research studies make predictions
with narration of facts and charactristics related to
individual ,group or situation.

Hypothesis testing testing Research Design:- are

commonly known as Experimental research

study.it is a method or procedure involving the
control or manipulations of conditions for the
purpose of studying the relative effectiveness of
various treatments applied to members of a
sample.Experiment is the process in which the
experimenter manipulates one
variable(Independent variable) to study the effect
of the manipulation on another
variable(dependant variable).

Sampling & Sample

Design
A Sample is a smaller representation of a large whole.

When some of the elements are selected with the

intention of finding out something about the
population from which they are taken,that group of
elements is referred as sample and the process of
selection is called sampling.
Sampling is the selection of part of an aggregate or
totality on the basis of which a judgement or
inference about the aggregate or totality is made.
Design describes the method by which the sample is
chosen.

Sampling Process
Step

Description

1.Define the Population

The population is defined in terms

of a)element b)units c)Extent
d)Time

2.Specify sampling Frame

The means of representing the

elements of the population.
EX.Telephone Book,map

3.Specify Sampling Unit

The unit for sampling is

selected .The Sampling unit may
contain one or several population
elements

4.Specify sampling method

The method by which the

sampling units are to be selected
is described.

5.Determine Sampling size

The number of elements of the

population to be sampled is
chosen

6.Specify Sampling plan

The operational procedures for

Essentials of Good
Sampling
The essentials of a good sampling are:
The Sample should be true representative of the universe
There should be no bias in selecting a sample.
All the items should be independent of each other
Quality and time of the sample should be the same
The conditions should be the same for all items
Sampling needs to be adequate
It should be possible to measure or estimate the sampling
error
The result of the sample study in general should be
applicable to all items of the universe . A good sample
should be consistent of homogeneous items.

Methods of Sampling
Probability Sampling
Methods(Random)

Non Probability Sampling

Methods
(Non Random)

a)Simple random Sampling

(Unrestricted random
sampling)

Accidental sampling
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Convenience Sampling

b)Restricted Random sampling

Stratified Sampling
Systematic sampling
Cluster & area sampling
Multiphase/stage sampling
Sequential Sampling

Simple/unrestricted Random sampling:-is a sampling

technique in which each & every item or each possible
sample combination in the whole population has an equal
and independent chance of being included in the sample.
Mixed /stratified Random Sampling
Under this process the entire population is divided into
homogeneous groups or types or classes called strata and
a sample is drawn from each stratum at random.These
samples are then combined to form a single
sample.Stratification of the population for a purpose of
sampling contributes to efficiency of sampling if it
establishes classes.This method is suitable for a large
heterogeneous population.

Systematic Sampling/Quasi Random Sampling:-

Is one in which every Kth item(10th item)is selected in a list

representing a population or a stratum.The no
K is called the sampling interval.The items of population are arranged
in systematic order on the basis of its important characteristics.
Multi stage sampling or cluster sampling:Is a sampling procedure which is carried out in several stages.The
population is distributed into a no of first stage sampling units and a
sample is taken of these first stage units by some some suitable
method.Each of these units is subdivided into second stage units , &
from these again a sample is taken by some suitable method.Large
groupings within the population (at the first stage)are called
clusters.The clusters are the sampling units known as primary units
first stage-state level,second stage-District level,Third stage- village
level,fourth level- household level.

Sequential Sampling: ultimate size of sample under

this technique is not fixed in advance but is

determined according to mathematical decision
rules on the basis of information yielded as survey
progresses .This method is adopted in case of
acceptance sampling plan in context of statistical
quality control.when a particular lot is to be
accepted or rejected on the basis of single
sample.But when the number of samples is more
than two but how many is neither certain nor
decided in advance,this type of system is referred
to as Sequential sampling.

Non Random/Non probability Sampling

Here there is no assurance that every element
has some chance of being included.
Accidental Sampling:-Here the researcher
simply reaches out & takes cases that fall to
hand continuing the process till such time as
the sample reaches a designated size.
Ex : The researcher may take first 50 persons
he meets on the road who are wiling to be
interviewed or to provide the kind of
information that he is seeking .

Convenience Sampling:- is also called the

chunk.A chunk refers to that fraction of the

population being interviewed or investigated
which is selected neither by probability or by
judgement but by convienience.A sample
obtained from readily available lists such as
telephone directory etc.
Judgement or purposive Sampling: - A
judgement sample is one which is selected
according to some ones personal
judgement .

Quota Sampling

Is one in which the interviewer is instructed to

collect information from an assigned no or
quota , of individuals in each of several groups
the groups being specified as to
age,sex,income or other characterisitcs much
lik the strata in stratified sampling. Quota
sampling is very popular in market surveys
and public opinion polls because it is cheaper
per elementary sample than random
sampling.

Field observation in Research

Observation may be defined as systematic viewing
,coupled with consideration of the seen phenomena.
Components of Observation
Sensation Is derived from sense organs.The accuracy
of observation depends,to a great extent,on the power
of the sensory organs like eyes ,nose ,ears etc.
Attention-is related to the ability to concentrate on the
subject matter of study.
Perception-enables the mind to recognise the facts by
identifying sensations and drawing upon experience &
introspection.

Types of Observation
There are mainly 2 types of observation
Controlled Mechanical aid is used.
Uncontrolled-no mechanical aid is used,data
is collected without standardising method.The
investigator thinks that he knows more than
what he actually observes.Thus dependable
may not be collected through this type of
observation.

Data collection &

processing
Data is the information obtained from the survey an
experiment or an investigation.
Types of Data
1.Primary Data
2.Secondary Data
Primary Data:-data collected from primary
source.primary data is the data collected for the
first time by an investigator or agency , who makes
use of the data for the first time.
Ex:-Data collected on brand awareness,brand
prfrence,loyalty etc.

How to select an appropriate data

collection method
The following aspects needs to be considered
while selecting a method for data collection.
Objective of the study
Size of the sample
Nature of response
Characteristics of Respondents
Availability of manpower
Type of information required

Secondary Data:-are collected from secondary sources .These data

are collected & stored after being collected and used for some
purpose by some agency.These data may be in published form or
unpublished form.
Sources of Secondary Data
A)Sources of published data
National income statistics
Statistical abstract of India
Statistical systems of India
Census Reports
India trade Journals
Reports of Economic department of RBI
Reports of world bank
Technical trade journals

b)Sources of unpublished data

Records of private firms
Materials kept with researchers
Documents relating to registration, license etc.
3.Interview:- one of the widely used method for data
collection is interview.Interview is of two types:Personal Interview
Telephonic Interview

Types of Interview
Structured interview
Unstructured interview
Focused interview
Stress interview
Clinical interview
Non directive interview
Depth interview

4)Observation: is one of the commonly used method of data

collection.observation is the process in which one or more persons
observe what is occuring in some real life situations and they
classify & record happenings according to some planned scheme.
Types of observation
Structured observation
Unstructured observation
Participant observation
Non paricipant observation
Direct observation
Indirect observation
Controlled observation
Uncontrolled observation

5)Questionnaire:- : is one of the widely used method

of data collection .Questinnaire is a list of planned
written questions related to a particular topic with
space provided for indicating the response to
each question.it is the most popular & easy
means to collect data.
Types of Questionnaire
Closed form questionnaire
Open form questionnaire
Structured questionnaire
Unstructured questionnaire

Important Aspects of a Questionnaire

1.Question sequence
2.Principles for constructing a questionnaire
The objective of the questionnaire must be clearly
stated
Adequate alternatives should be given
Double negative statements should be avoided.
Questions framed should be appropriate for all
respondents
The questions should be objective with no leading
suggestions
question should not be too long

Research Report
A research report is a document which narrates the problem
investigated,the methods used , the methods used ,result of the
investigation and the conclusions inferred from the results.The purposen
of the research report is to communicate to the readers the methodology
& findings of the study in such a manner as to enable them to
understand the research process and to determine the validity of
findings.
Types of Research Report
Short Reports-When the problem is well defined ,ltd in scope and has a
simple & straight forward methodology ,at that time short reports are
appropriate.These reports are about five pages ex: Summary
reports,Abstract.
Long Reports are of two types technical & management reports.
Technical report is written for an audience of researchers , and a
management report is written for a non technical oriented manager or
client.

Writing the Report

Pre writing concerns
What is the purpose of the report?
Who will read the report?
What is the importance of the topic
How the report will be used?
1.Prepare the outline- Topic,sub topic
2.Prepare the Draft
3.Readability
4.Comprehensability
5.Final proof

Measurement & Scaling

By measurement we mean the process of

assigning numbers to objects or observations.

Measurement Scales
Nominal Scale
Ordinal Scale
Interval Scale
Ratio Scale

Multi Dimensional Scaling

Multi Dimensional Scaling is a term used to

describe a group of analytical techniques used

to study consumer attitudes.Particularly
attitude relating to perceptions & prefrences .
Ex:- what brand compete most directly with
each other?
What would be the consumers ideal
combination of product attributes
What sales & advertising messages are
compatible with consumer brand perceptions

Uses of Multi Dimensional Scaling

Market Segmentation
Product life cycle
Vendor evaluations
Advertising & media selection