UEMH 4413

Sensors and Instrumentation

JAN 2015

TOPIC 3 (Part 1)
Measurement Sensors and Instrument

Electrical Test Instruments

The magnitude of voltage signals can be measured by
various electrical indicating and test instruments, such as
- Digital meters
- Analogue meters
- Cathode ray oscilloscopes
- Digital storage oscilloscopes

Digital Meters
All digital meters are based on the digital voltmeter (DVM).
Digital meters for quantities other than voltage are in fact
DVMs containing circuits to convert current/resistance signals
into voltage signals.
Digital Multimeters (DMM) contain several conversion circuits
allowing measurement of voltage, current, and resistance in
one instrument

Digital Meters
Digital meters are technically superior to analogue meters in
almost every respect:
- Faster speed of response to voltage changes.
- The binary output reading can be readily applied to a
display that is in the form of discrete numerals.
- Eliminates parallax error and reduces misreading the meter
output.
- Higher measurement accuracy (quoted inaccuracy are
between 0.005% and 2%).
5

Digital Meters

- High input impedance (10 M compared with 120 k for

analogue meters).
- Can measure high frequency signals (up to 1 MHz).
- Extra features such as automatic ranging which prevents
overload and reverse polarity connection etc.
Greater manufacturing cost compared with analogue meters.
Important part of DVM is the circuitry for converting analogue
voltage to a digital quantity.
DVMs measure DC in its basic mode.
AC-DC conversion is necessary to measure AC signals.
6

Digital Meters
Voltage value is normally displayed using LCDs or transmitted
to a computing device this form of display enables
measurements to be recorded with much greater accuracy
than that obtainable by reading an analogue meter scale.
DVMs mainly differ in the technique used for analogue-todigital conversion (ADC) expensive/complicated methods
generally are faster.

Digital Meters

Voltage-to-time conversion DVM

Simplest form of DVM and is a ramp type of instrument.
Negative-slope ramp waveform is generated internally and
compared with the input signal.
When two signals equal, a gate-opening pulse is generated.
When ramp voltage is zero, gate-closing pulse is generated.
Length of time is monitored by an electronic counter, directly
gives voltage measurement.
Cheap but ramp waveform is non-linear and lack of noise
rejection - cause inaccuracy of 0.05%.
8

Digital Meters

Potentiometric DVM
Uses a servo principle.
Error between input voltage and a reference voltage is
applied to the servo-driven potentiometer which adjusts the
reference voltage till it balances the input voltage.
Digital display also driven by the potentiometer.
Cheap with good performance.

Digital Meters
Dual-slope integration DVM
Simple DVM, better noise-rejection and better measurement
accuracy (inaccuracy 0.005%) but quite expensive.
Input voltage, Vi is applied to an integrator for a fixed time T1.
After that, a reference
voltage of opposite sign
is applied to the integrator
till it reaches zero in an
interval T2.
Vi = Vref(T1/T2)
10

Digital Meters
Voltage-to-frequency conversion DVM
Range switch and amplifier used to feed input voltage into a
converter circuit.
Output is a train of voltage pulses at a frequency proportional
to the magnitude of the input voltage.
Able to reject AC noise.

11

Digital Meters
Digital Multimeter
Extension of DVM.
Can measure both AC and DC voltages over a number of
ranges.
A set of switchable amplifiers and attenuators provides the
selection of function and range.
Normally includes protection circuits against damage from
high voltage in the wrong range.

12

Analogue Meters
Simple and inexpensive.
Suffer less from noise and isolation problems.
Passive instruments that do not need power supply.
Analogue meters are electromechanical devices that drive a
pointer against a scale.
Prone to error from inaccurate scale markings, bearing
friction, bent pointers, ambient temperature variations.
Human errors are introduced such as parallax errors and
mistakes in interpolating between scale markings.
Inaccuracy figures are between 0.1% and 3%.

13

Analogue Meters

Moving-coil meters
Commonly used because of its
sensitivity, accuracy and linear
scale.
It only responds to DC
signals.
Consists of a rectangular coil wound
around a soft iron core in a
permanent magnetic field.
Input signal induces a radial magnetic field.
14

Analogue Meters
Interaction between induced field and the field produced by
the permanent magnet causes a torque which rotates the coil.
Amount of rotation is measured using attached pointer on a
graduated scale.
Theoretical torque is T = BIhwN
where B = flux density of the radial field
I = current flowing in the coil
h = height of the coil
w = width of the coil
N = number of turns in the coil
15

Analogue Meters
If the iron core is cylindrical and the air gap is uniform, then
flux density, B is constant, and equation can be rewritten as
T = KI
Torque proportional to coil current (linear instrument scale).
Operates at low current levels (1 mA) and only suitable for
measuring voltages of about 2V.
Shunt resistor (in series with the coil) can be used for
increased voltage range.
Special magnets or core shapes can be used for increased
deflection range or non-linear (e.g. logarithmic) scales.
16

Analogue Meters

Moving-iron meters
Measures both AC (up to 125 Hz) and DC signals.
Cheapest form of meter available - commonly used for
measuring voltage signals.
Signal applied to stationary coil, field produced can be
amplified by an iron structure associated with the fixed coil.
Iron vane that is suspended within the field of the fixed coil
turns in the direction that increases flux through it.
Moving-iron instruments can be attraction type, repulsion type
(majority) or combination type (few).
17

Analogue Meters
Attraction type

Repulsion type

18

Analogue Meters
For an excitation current I, the torque produced that causes
the vane to turn is :
where M = mutual inductance and = angular deflection
Rotation is opposed by a spring with backwards torque,
Ts = K
At equilibrium, T = Ts,

19

Analogue Meters
The instrument has a square-law response where deflection
is proportional to square of the signal (i.e. output is RMS).
Range is 0-30 V, can be increased with shunt resistor.
A series resistance in AC signal measurements can reduce
the total resistance/inductance ratio, and hence measurement
accuracy is improved.
A switchable series resistance is often provided within the
casing of the instrument to facilitate range extension.
When voltage measured exceeds about 300 volts, external
resistance is used instead due to heat-dissipation problems.
20

Analogue Meters
Electrodynamic meters
Electrodynamic meters (or
dynamometers) can measure both
DC and AC (up to 2kHz).
The instrument has a moving
circular coil in a magnetic field
produced by 2 separately wound,
series-connected circular stator coils.

21

Analogue Meters
Torque depends on the mutual inductance between the coils.
where I1 , I2 = currents flowing in fixed and moving coils
M = mutual inductance
= angular displacement between the coils
When used as an ammeter, the measured current is applied
to both coils.
Torque Current2
22

Analogue Meters
For AC current, meter is unable to alternate torque values and
instead displays mean value of current2.
By suitable drawing of the scale, the position of the pointer
shows the squared root of this value, i.e. the RMS current.
Typically expensive but more accurate than moving coil/iron
instruments.
V, I, and P can all be measured with appropriate connection
of fixed/moving coils.
Measure voltages in the range of 0-30 V. Can be modified to
measure higher voltages with the use of shunt resistance.
23

Analogue Meters
Clamp-on meters
Measures current/voltage in a non-invasive manner which
avoids breaking the circuit being
measured.
Meter clamps onto a current-carrying
conductor, output reading is obtained by
transformer action.

24

Analogue Meters
Clamp-on jaws act as a transformer core and the currentcarrying conductor acts as a primary winding.
Current induced in secondary winding is
rectified and applied to moving-coil
meter.
Very convenient but low sensitivity,
minimum current measurable is about
1 A.

25

Analogue Meters

Analogue Multimeter
Multi-function instrument that can measure current,
resistance, AC and DC voltage signals.
Consists of a moving-coil meter with a switchable bridge
rectifier to allow it to measure AC signals.
Rotary switches allow selection of various series/shunt
resistors allowing voltage/current measurement over a
number of ranges.
Internal power source allows resistance measurement.
Accuracy not as good as single-purpose instruments.
26

Analogue Meters

27

Analogue Meters
Measuring high-frequency signals
One major limitation of analogue meters is that the maximum
AC frequency measurable
is low, 2 kHz for
electrodynamic meter and
100Hz for moving-iron meter.
Partial solution is to rectify
the voltage signal and then
apply it to a moving-coil
meter.
28

Analogue Meters
This extends the upper measurable frequency limit to 20 kHz.
Inclusion of the bridge rectifier makes the measurement
system sensitive to
environmental temperature
changes, and non-linearities
significantly affect
measurement accuracy for
voltages that are small
relative to the full-scale
value.
29

Analogue Meters

Thermocouple meter
Can measure very high-frequency voltage up to 50 MHz.
AC voltage signal heats up a small element.
Temperature rise is
measured by
thermocouple.
DC voltage generated is
applied to a moving-coil
meter.
Output is RMS voltage.
30

Analogue Meters
Electronic analogue voltmeters
Active rather than passive, high input impedance that avoids
the circuit loading problems and amplification capability that
enables to measure small signal levels.
The standard electronic voltmeter for DC measurements
consists of a simple direct-coupled amplifier and a movingcoil meter.

31

Analogue Meters
For measurement of very low-level voltages of a few
microvolts, chopper amplifier is used.
DC input is passed through 250 Hz chopper followed by
capacitor, op-amp and capacitor again before applied to a
moving-coil meter.

32

Analogue Meters
Electronic voltmeter for measuring a.c. signals:
1. Average responding type
- A direct-coupled DC electronic voltmeter with an additional
rectifying stage at the input.
- The output is the average value of the measured voltage
waveform.
2. Peak-responding type
- Consists of a half-wave rectifier at the input followed by a
capacitor, an amplifier and moving-coil meter.
33

Analogue Meters
- Capacitor is charged to the peak value of the input signal,
therefore gives reading of the peak voltage in the input
waveform.
3. RMS-responding type
- A thermocouple meter with an amplification stage at the
input.
- Gives output reading in terms of RMS value of the input
waveform.

34

Analogue Meters
Example 1
Calculate the reading that would be
observed on a moving-coil ammeter
when it is measuring the current in the
circuit shown in Figure.

35

Analogue Meters
Solution
A moving-coil meter measures mean current.

36

Analogue Meters
Example 2
Calculate the reading that would be
observed on a moving-iron ammeter
when it is measuring the current in the
circuit shown in Figure.

37

Analogue Meters
Solution

Thus,

38

Analogue Meters
Example 3
A dynamometer ammeter is connected in series with a 500
resistor, a rectifying device and a 240 V RMS alternating
sinusoidal power supply. The rectifier behaves as a resistance
of 200 to current flowing in one direction and as a resistance
of 2 k to current in the opposite direction. Calculate the
reading on the meter.

39

Analogue Meters
Solution
Calculate peak voltage from RMS voltage then find RMS
current.

For 0 < t < , R = 700 and for < t < 2, R = 2500

40

Analogue Meters

Hence,

41

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Probably the most versatile and useful instrument available
for signal measurement.
Traditionally analogue, able to measure a wide range of AC
and DC voltage signal levels, frequency, and phase of a
signal.
Measure from 20 MHz (cheapest model) to 500MHz (most
expensive model).
Negligible loading effect due to high input impedance,
typically 1 M.
42

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Rotary switches to alter timebase and internal circuitry
protects from high voltage damage.
Not particularly accurate (inaccuracy 1% for best
instruments and 10% for cheapest instruments).
Fragile (being built around a cathode ray tube) and costly.
Most important aspects are bandwidth, rise time, and
accuracy.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which the
oscilloscope amplifier gain is within 3dB of its peak value (i.e.
-3dB is when gain is 0.707 times max value).
43

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

The difference between voltage levels V1 and V2 is expressed
in decibels (dB) as 20 log10(V1/V2) = 20 log10(0.7071) = -3 dB.

44

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Most oscilloscopes use direct-coupled amplifiers meaning
minimum frequency is zero and bandwidth specifies the
maximum frequency within 3 dB of the peak value.
Measured frequency should be well within bandwidth as
inaccuracy is higher when closer to bandwidth (only usable at
frequencies up to about 0.3 times bandwidth).
Rise time is the transit time between 10% and 90% levels of
response when step input is applied. Normally designed as
Bandwidth Rise time = 0.35
For a bandwidth of 100 MHz, rise time = = 3.5 ns.
45

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Oscilloscope is a relatively complicated instrument that is
constructed from a number of subsystems.
Cathode ray tube
The cathode consists of a barium and strontium oxide coated,
thin, heated filament which emits a stream of electrons.
Electrons are focused on a fluorescent screen by an
electrostatic focusing system consisting of a series of metal
discs/cylinders charged at various potentials.
Adjustments done by controls on front panel of oscilloscope.
46

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Intensity control varies cathode heater current rate of
emission of electrons.

47

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Application of potentials to two sets of
right-angled deflector plates (horizontal and
vertical) provide for deflection of the stream
of electrons in 2 dimensions.
Magnitude of any signal (potential) on
deflector plates can be measured using
the crossed-wire graticule etched on screen.
Most commonly, time-base connected to
x-axis and signal to y-axis.
48

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Channel
One channel describes the basic subsystem of an electron
source, focusing system, and deflector plates.
This subsystem is often duplicated to provide capability of
displaying two or more signals at the same time.
Common oscilloscope with 2-channel configuration can
display two separate signals simultaneously on the same
screen.

49

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Single-ended input
This type of input only has one input terminal (plus a ground
terminal).
Only allows signal voltage measurement relative to ground.
Normally only used in simple oscilloscopes.

50

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Differential input
input is provided on

This type of
more expensive
oscilloscopes.
Two input terminals plus a ground terminal provided for each
channel.
Allows potentials of two non-grounded points in circuit to be
compared.
Can also work in single-ended mode by using just one of the
input terminals plus ground.
51

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Timebase circuit
Used to apply a voltage to the horizontal deflector plates such
that the horizontal position of the spot is proportional to time.
This voltage, in the form of a ramp known as a sweep
waveform, is applied repetitively such that the motion of the
spot across the screen appears as a straight line when a DC
level is applied to input.
This timebase voltage is synchronized with the input signal in
the general case of a time-varying signal such that a steady
picture is obtained on the oscilloscope screen.
52

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Length of time taken for the spot to traverse the screen is
controlled by a time/div switch.
Each cycle of the sweep waveform is initiated by a pulse from
a pulse generator.
The input to the pulse generator is a sinusoidal signal known
as a triggering signal.
A pulse is generated every time the triggering signal crosses
a preselected slope/voltage level condition.
This condition is defined by the trigger level and trigger slope
switches.
53

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

The former selects the voltage level on the trigger signal,
commonly zero, at which a pulse is generated, whilst the
latter selects whether pulsing occurs on a positive- or
negative-going part of the triggering waveform.
Synchronization of the sweep waveform with the measured
signal is most easily achieved by using measured signal as
trigger signal known as internal triggering.
If the amplitude of the measured signal is too small, external
triggering is necessary.
54

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

External triggering can be applied if the frequencies of the
triggering signal and measured signals are related by an
integer constant such that the display is stationary.
External triggering is also used in measurement of the phase
difference between two sinusoidal signals of the same
frequency.
50 Hz line voltage is used for external triggering when
measuring signals at mains frequency (line triggering).

55

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Vertical sensitivity control

Consists of a series of attenuators and pre-amplifiers at the
input to the oscilloscope.
Enables the instrument to measure a very wide range of
signal magnitudes by conditioning it.
Selection is done using a volts/div control.
Defines the magnitude of the input signal which will cause a
deflection of one division on the screen.

56

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

Display position control

Allows position at which signal is displayed on the screen to
be controlled in two ways.
Horizontal position is adjusted by horizontal position knob.
Vertical position is adjusted by vertical position knob.
Adjusts position by biasing the measured signal with a DC
voltage level.

57

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

Digital storage oscilloscopes consist of a conventional
analogue cathode ray oscilloscope with the additional facility
of converting the measured signal to digital format and storing
in computer memory within the instrument.
Can be used to refresh display, allowing non-fading display of
the signal on the screen.
Digital oscilloscope displays consist of a sequence of
individual dots.
High density dots gives appearance of continuous traces.
58

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

Density of the dots depends upon the sampling rate at which
the analogue signal is digitized.
Most expensive instruments give the best performance in
terms of dot density and the accuracy with which the
analogue signal is recorded and represented.
Some digital oscilloscopes can also compute signal
parameters such as peak values, mean values and RMS
values.
Ideally suited for capturing (freezing) transient signals.
59

Digital Storage Oscilloscopes

Very careful synchronization is necessary to capture such
signals on an analogue oscilloscope.
Often have facilities to output analogue signals and digital
signals to other devices.

60