COE 571

Digital System Testing

An Introduction

Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh

Computer Engineering Department
King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

Outline

Welcome to COE 571

VLSI Realization Process

Definition of Testing

Reasons for Testing

Chip Manufacturing Process

Manufacturing Cost

Main Difficulties in Testing

Defects & Faults

Fault Models

Automatic Test Pattern Generation

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Welcome to COE 571

Instructor:

Dr. Aiman H. El-Maleh

Office:

Building 22, Room 318

Office Phone:2811

Office Hours: SMW 11:0012:00 PM

Email:

[email protected]

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Grading Policy

Assignments
15%
Exam I 15% (S., March 29, 7:00 PM)
Exam II 20% (S., May 17, 7:00 PM)
Paper Presentations
10%
Project 20%
Final
20%

Attendance will be taken regularly.

Excuses for officially authorized absences must be presented

no later than one week following resumption of class

attendance.
Late assignments will be accepted (upto 3 days) but you will be
penalized 10% per each late day.
A student caught cheating in any of the assignments will get 0
out of 15%.
No makeup will be made for missing Quizzes or Exams.
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Course Topics

Introduction: The testing problem, costs of testing, test

types and schemes.

Fault modeling: Fault detection and redundancy, fault

equivalence, dominance, checkpoints and collapsing.
Fault diagnosis. Stuck-at faults, bridging faults,
transistor faults, delay faults, etc.

Fault simulation: serial, parallel, deductive, and

concurrent fault simulation. Parallel pattern single fault
propagation, critical path tracing and fault sampling.

Test generation for Combinational circuits: Boolean

difference, path sensitization, D-algorithm, PODEM,
and FAN. Random test generation, Combined
random/deterministic test generation. Test compaction.
Cost functions and testability measures.

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Course Topics

Test generation for sequential circuits: Timeframe expansion, extended D-algorithm, BACK
algorithm, simulation-based approaches, and
complexity of sequential ATPG.

Test generation for CMOS circuits: Test

generation for transistor stuck-open and stuck short

faults. Test generation based on gate-level models,
robust and non-robust test generation.

Delay-fault testing: Gate and path delay fault

models, robust, validatable nonrobust and nonrobust

test vectors, path delay fault simulation and test
generation.
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Course Topics

Design for testability: Ad-hoc methods, types of

scan cells, LSSD, full scan design, partial scan design,

and boundary scan design. Partial scan selection
techniques.

Built-in self test: Theory and operation of LFSR,

MISR, random and weighted random pattern testability,

BIST pattern generator and response analyzer, scanbased BIST architecture, and test point insertion for
improving random testability.

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Textbook

Digital Systems Testing

and Testable Design
Miron Abramovici,
Melvin A. Breuer,
Arthur D. Friedman

ISBN: 978-0-7803-1062-9

September 1994, WileyIEEE Press

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VLSI Realization Process

Customers need
Determine requirements
Write specifications
Design synthesis and Verification
Test development
Fabricatio
n
Manufacturing test

Chips to customer
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Definitions

Design synthesis: Given an I/O function, develop a

procedure to manufacture a device using known
materials and processes.

Verification: Predictive analysis to ensure that the

synthesized design, when manufactured, will perform
the given I/O function.

Test: A manufacturing step that ensures that the

physical device, manufactured from the synthesized
design, has no manufacturing defect.

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Verification vs. Test

Verification

Test

Verifies correctness of
design.

Verifies correctness of
manufactured hardware.

Performed by
simulation, hardware
emulation, or formal
methods.

Two-part process:

Performed once prior to

manufacturing.

Responsible for quality

of design.

1. Test generation: software

process executed once during
design
2. Test application: electrical tests
applied to hardware

Test application performed on

every manufactured device.

Responsible for quality of

devices.
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Definition of Testing

A known input stimulus is applied to a unit in a known

state, and a known response can be evaluated.

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Example

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Reasons for Testing

Detection: Determination whether or not the device

under test (DUT) has some fault.

Measurement of defects and quality level

Reliability requirement

Diagnosis: Identification of a specific fault that is

present on DUT.

Device characterization: Determination and correction

of errors in design and/or test procedure.

Failure mode analysis (FMA): Determination of

manufacturing process errors that may have caused
defects on the DUT.

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Chip Manufacturing Process

Blank wafers

Silicon ingot
Slicer
8-12 in diameter
12-24 in long

20 to 30 processing steps
< 0.1 in thick

Tested dies
Die
Tester

Packaged dies
Bond die to
package

Patterned wafer

Individual dies
Dicer

Tested Packaged dies

Part
Tester

Ship to
Customers

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Wafer of Pentium 4 Processors

8 inches (20 cm) in diameter

Die area is 250 mm2

About 16 mm per side

55 million transistors per die

0.18 m technology
Size of smallest transistor
Improved technology uses
0.13 m and 0.09 m

Dies per wafer = 169

When yield = 100%

Number is reduced after testing
Rounded dies at boundary are useless

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Effect of Die Size on Yield

Good Die
Defective Die

120 dies, 109 good

26 dies, 15 good

Dramatic decrease in yield with larger dies

Yield = (Number of Good Dies) / (Total Number of Dies)
1
Yield =
(1 + (Defect per area Die area / 2))2
Die Cost = (Wafer Cost) / (Dies per Wafer Yield)
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Product Manufacturing Cost

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Product Manufacturing Cost

Reduction of silicon cost

increasing volume and yield

die size reduction (process shrinks or more efficient layout)

Reduction of packaging cost

increasing volume
shifting to lower cost packages if possible (e.g., from ceramic

to plastic)
reduction in package pin count

Reduction in cost of test

reducing vector data size

reducing the cost of the tester
reducing test time
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Main Difficulties in Testing

Miniaturization
Physical access
difficult or impossible.
Increasing complexity
Large
amount of test data.
Number of access ports remains
constant
Long test application
time.
High speed
High demand on
testers driver/sensor mechanism
and more complicated failure
mechanism.
Testing accounts up to 50% of
product development efforts.
The key to successful testing lies in
the design process.

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Main Difficulties in Testing

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Costs of Testing

Design for testability (DFT)

Chip area overhead and yield reduction

Performance overhead

Software processes of test

Test generation and fault simulation

Test programming and debugging

Manufacturing test

Automatic test equipment (ATE) capital cost

Test center operational cost

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Cost of Manufacturing Test

0.5-1.0GHz, analog instruments,1,024 digital pins:

ATE purchase price= $1.2M + 1,024 x $3,000 = $4.272M

Running cost (five-year linear depreciation)

= Depreciation + Maintenance + Operation

= $0.854M + $0.085M + $0.5M
= $1.439M/year

Test cost (24 hour ATE operation)

= $1.439M/(365 x 24 x 3,600)
= 4.5 cents/second

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Automatic Test Equipment Components

Powerful computer

Powerful 32-bit Digital Signal Processor (DSP) for

analog testing

Test Program (written in high-level language) running

on the computer

Probe Head (actually touches the bare or packaged

chip to perform fault detection experiments)

Probe Card or Membrane Probe (contains electronics

to measure signals on chip pin or pad)

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ADVANTEST Model T6682 ATE

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LTX FUSION HF ATE

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Manufacturing Test Board

The chip will be accessed by the

tester at its pins only

A custom (load) board will be

made for this purpose

Each pin has a limited number of

bits available (e.g., 2 MB)

Test program (set of vectors and

tester control) applied at tester
speed (may be less than actual
chip speed)

Primary goal of manufacturing

test is structural verification
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Design For Testability

To take into account the testing aspects during the design

process so that more testable designs will be generated.

Advantages of DFT

Reduce test efforts.

Eases generation of test vectors

Eases diagnosis & debugging

Reduce cost for test equipments (ATE).

Shorten turnaround time.
Increase product quality.

Disadvantages of DFT

Adds complexity to design methodology

Impacts design area, power, speed and package pins
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Defects

Defects: physical problems that occur in silicon

Common Silicon CMOS defects:

Gate-oxide shorts
Insufficient doping
Process or mask errors
Metal trace opens
Metal trace bridges
Open and plugged vias
Short to power (Vdd) or Ground (Vss)

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Defects

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Faults

Fault is a model of failure mode of

defect that relates defect to circuit
behavior.

Example

Gate-Oxide short shorts transistors

source to drain (S2D)

Modeled by connecting gate to 0 or 1
Transistor Stuck-on or Stuck-off

Behavior resulting from these

models may be a high current, a
high impedance state or
intermittent behavior.
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Common Fault Models

Single stuck-at faults

Multiple stuck-at faults

Transistor open and short faults

Bridging faults

Delay faults (transition, path)

Memory faults

PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging)

Functional faults (processors)

Analog faults

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Single Stuck-at Fault Model

Failures represented as
an individual wire shorted
to Vdd (stuck-at-1) or Vss
(stuck-at-0).

Covers many of physical

defects.

Number of faults small.

Independent of
technology.

Can be used to model

other type of faults.
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Example

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Multiple Stuck-at Faults

A multiple stuck-at fault means that any set of lines is

stuck-at some combination of (0,1) values.

The total number of multiple stuck-at faults in a circuit

with k single fault sites is 3k-1.

A single fault test can fail to detect the target fault if

another fault is also present, however, such masking of
one fault by another is rare.

Statistically, single fault tests cover a very large

number of multiple faults.

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Transistor (Switch) Faults

MOS transistor is considered an ideal switch and two

types of faults are modeled:

Stuck-open -- a single transistor is permanently stuck in the

open state.
Stuck-short -- a single transistor is permanently shorted
irrespective of its gate voltage.

Detection of a stuck-open fault requires two vectors.

Detection of a stuck-short fault requires the

measurement of quiescent current (IDDQ).

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Stuck-Open Example
Vector 1: test for A s-a-0
(Initialization vector)
pMOS
FETs
1

A
B

nMOS
FETs

Vector 2 (test for A s-a-1)

V DD

Stuckopen

Two-vector s-op test

can be constructed by
ordering two s-at tests

1(Z)
Good circuit states

Faulty circuit states

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Stuck-Short Example
Test vector for A s-a-0
pMOS
FETs
1
0

A
B

nMOS
FETs

V DD

IDDQ path in
faulty circuit

Stuckshort

Good circuit state

0 (X)

Faulty circuit state

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Delay Faults

Some defects do not manifest a logical incorrect

behavior but appear as an increase in delay

Example

Small metal open on a connection trace

Logic value still propagates
Propagation of value is slowed down

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Example

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Fault Coverage

Used as measure of test quality

Detected Faults
Fault Coverage
Number of Faults

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Types of Testing

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Automatic Test Pattern Generation

Eases generation of test

vectors.

Reduces cost of test

More efficient test vectors

Reduction in cycle time

Provides a deterministic
quality metric.

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Detectable Fault

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Undetectable Fault

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