BAB 2 ELECTRICITY

2.1 ANALYSING ELECTRIC FIELD

AND CHARGE FLOW

2.2 ANALYSING THE RELATIONSHIP

BETWEEN ELECTRIC CURRENT AND
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

Ohms law states that the electric current, I flowing

through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across the ends of the conductor , if
temperature and other physical conditions remain
constant.
Mathematically, Ohms Law is written: V = IR
where
V = potential difference [V]
I = current [A]
R = resistance []

Ohms Law tells us that if a conductor is at a

constant temperature, the voltage across the
ends of the conductor is proportional to the
current. This means that if we plot voltage on the
y-axis of a graph and current on the x-axis of the
graph, we will get a straight-line.
The gradient of the straight-line graph is then
the resistance of the conductor.

The resistance, R is a term that describes the

opposition experienced by the electrons as they
flow in a conductor.
It is also defined as the ratio of the potential
difference across the conductor to the current, I
flowing through the conductor.

Non-ohmic conductors are conductors which do

not obey Ohms Law.
E.g., a light bulb whose resistance increases over
time due to temperature increase (heating effect
of current)

In general non-ohmic conductors have plots of

voltage against current that are curved,
indicating that the resistance is not constant over
all values of voltage and current.

Question :
What is the value of the resistor in the figure, if
the dry cells supply 2.0 V and the ammeter reading
is 0.5 A?

ANSWER:
V = IR
2.0 = 0.5 (R)
R = 4.0

2.2.2 FACTORS THAT AFFECTS

RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

The resistance of a conductor is a measure of the

ability of the conductor to resist the flow of an
electric current through it.
An important effect of a resistor is that it
converts electrical energy into other forms of
energy, such as heat and light.

Factors that affect resistance of a conductor:

1. the length of the conductor
~The longer the conductor , the higher its
resistance

2. the cross-sectional area of the conductor

~The bigger the cross-sectional area, the lower the
its resistance

3. type of material of the conductor

~ Different conductors with the same physical
conditions have different resistance
4. the temperature of the conductor
~ The higher temperature of conductor , the higher
the resistance.

Resistance of a conductor,

R=

L
A

, where
R= resistance [ ]
= resistivity of the substance [m ]
L= length [ m ]
A= cross sectional area of conductor
[ m2 ]

2.2.3 SUPERCONDUCTORS

There is a special type of conductor, called a

superconductor that has no resistance, but the
materials that make up superconductors only
start superconducting at critical temperatures
(very low temperatures approximately -170C).

Special properties:
Allows

the flow of electric current with minimal loss

ofenergy
Negates any applied external magnetic fields

Superconductors are used in transportation,

electronic components, energy storage, power
cables, etc.

Best conductors like silver, copper and gold do not

show superconductivity.

2.3 ANALSING SERIES AND

PARALLEL CIRCUITS

Series circuit
A

circuit is a series circuit if the circuit components

are connected end to end consecutively so as to
provide a single path for the current to flow through
all the components.

Parallel circuit
A

circuit is a parallel circuit if the components are

placed side by side and their corresponding ends are
joined together.

Comparison between series circuit and parallel

circuit:
Series circuit

Parallel circuit

I = I1 = I2 = I3

I = I1 + I2 + I3

V = V1 + V2 + V3

V = V1 = V2 = V3

R = R1 + R2 + R3

1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Has only one path for I to flow

More than one path for I to flow

I same throughout the circuit

I different at different point of the

circuit

Component with largest R has

highest V across it

V across all the components is the

same

No I flows when switch is open

No I flows only in branch that is open

FIND THE RESISTANCE

1. Given that the equivalent resistance of the
connection in the figure above is 0.8, find the
resistance of the resistor R. ( Ans: 2)

2. Given that the equivalent resistance of the

connection in the figure above is 4, find the
resistance of the resistor R. ( Ans: 4)

FIND THE CURENT

1.For the circuit in the diagram above,
a. find the reading of the ammeter. ( Ans:6A)
b. find the current flows through the resistor.
(Ans:6A)

2. For the diagram above,

a. find the reading of the ammeter.( Ans: 1.5A)
b. find the current in each of the resistors.
( Ans: for 3 resistor, I=1A, for 6 resistor, I= 0.5A)

FIND THE POTENTIAL

DIFFERENCE

Find the potential difference across each of the

resistors in the diagram above. (Ans: For resistor
R1, V= 4V; for resistor R2, V = 8V)

2.4 ANALYSING ELECTROMOTIVE

FORCE (EMF) AND INTERNAL
RESISTANCE

1.

2.4.1 Potential difference ( p.d)

Gravitational potential energy at x is greater
than the gravitational potential energy at y.

2. The ball will fall from x to y when the ball is

released. This due to the difference in the
gravitational energy.

Electric current flows from a to b, passing the

bulb in the circuit and lights up the bulb.
This is due to the electric potential difference
between the two terminals.
As the charges flow from a to b, work is done
when electrical energy is transformed to light
and heat energy.

Potential difference: Work done to move 1

Coulomb of charge from one point to another in
an electric field.

where
V or E = potential difference /emf [Volt or JC-1]
W = energy released / work done [Joule]
Q = charge [Coulomb]

Charges move from high potential to low

potential, the moving charge called current

Potential difference can be measured with a

voltmeter connected in parallel across two points
within an electric circuit

TRY THIS

If a charge of 5.0 C flows through a wire and the

amount of electrical energy converted into heat is
2.5 J. Calculate the potential differences across
the ends of the wire. ( Ans: V = 0.5 V)

2.4.2 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

( E.M.F.)
The e.m.f. is defined as the work done by a source
in driving one coulomb of charge through a
complete circuit.
When you measure the potential difference across
(or between) the terminals of a battery you are
measuring the electromotive force (emf) of the
battery.

This is how much potential energy the battery

has to make charges move through the circuit.
This driving potential energy is equal to the total
potential energy drops in the circuit.
This means that the voltage across the battery is
equal to the sum of the voltages in the circuit.

E.m.f. = sum of potential difference across the

whole circuit, Vtotal

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Electromotive Force

Potential Difference

Similarities:
Have same unit (Volt)
Can be measured by Voltmeter
Definition

Definition

The electromotive force (e.m.f.) is

defined as the energy per unit
charge that is converted from
chemical, mechanical, or other
forms of energy into electrical
energy in a battery or dynamo.

The potential difference (p.d.)

between two points is defined as the
energy converted from electrical to
other forms when one coulomb of
positive charge passes between the
two points.

Symbol:

Symbol:

Denote by the symbol, E.

Denote by the symbol, V

TRY

What is the voltage across the unknown resistor

in the circuit shown? (Ans: V1 = 2V)

TRY THIS

The emf of a dry cell is 1.5V. What is the

dissipation of energy when the cell moves a
charge of 0.4C throughout the circuit? ( ans: 0.6J)

When a charge 3.75x 104C flow through an

electric circuit heater, the elctrical energy has
converted to heat energy 9.00 MJ. Calculate the
potential difference across the electric heater.
( Ans: 240V)

2.4.3 INTERNAL RESISTANCE

The internal resistance, r of cell is due to

opposing flows of electron in the electrolyte
within the electrodes in a closed circuit.

Before the switch is turned on:

The

battery does not supply current to the light bulb

Voltmeter reading = E.m.f. of battery

After the switch is turned on:

The

battery supplies current which flows around the

circuit
Voltmeter measures the potential difference across
the terminals of the battery
The voltmeter reading drops due to internal
resistance of the battery

EMF = IR + Ir
EMF = V + Ir
EMF = I (R + r)

where

EMF = electromotive force [V]

I = current flowing through the circuit [A]
R = total resistance of the circuit []
r = internal resistance of the batteries []
V = potential difference of the circuit [V]

From the equation,

E = V + Ir
Therefore
V = -rI + E
Y axis = Potential difference (V)
X axis = Current (I)
Gradient od the grapf, m = - internal resistance (r)
Y intercept of the graph, c = e.m.f.

TRY THIS

What is the internal resistance of a battery if its

emf is 12 V and the voltage drop across its
terminals is 10 V when a current of 4 A flows in
the circuit when it is connected across a load?
( ans: 0.5)

TRY THIS
When a 1 resistor is connected to the terminal
of a cell, the current that flow through it is 8A.
When the resistor is replaced by another resistor
with resistance 4, the current becomes 2A.
Find the
a. internal resistance of the cell ( ans: 0.5)
b. e.m.f. of the cell ( ans: 12V)

ANSWER:

R1 = 1

I1

= 8

E=IR+Ir
E=(8)(1)+(8)r
E8r=8 ------------(1)

R2 = 4

I2

= 2A

E=IR+Ir
E=(2 2/3)(4)+(2 2/3)r
3E8r=32 -----------(2)

Solve the simultaneous equation

E = 12V, r = 0.5

The graph shows the variation of potential

difference with current of a battery.
What is the internal resistance and e.m.f. of the
battery? ( ans: emf= 3V, r= 0.5)

2.5 ANALYSING
ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND
POWER

2.5.1 ELECTRIC POWER

When an electrical appliance is switched on, the

current flows and the electrical energy supplied by
the source is transformed to other forms of energy
(e.g heat and light energy in electric bulb)
Therefore, we can define electrical energy as :
The energy carried by electrical charges
which
can be transformed to other forms of
energy
by the operation of an electrical
appliance.

Electric power: rate of transferring electric energy :

a.P = E /t
where P = power [Watt]
E = electric energy used / dissipated [Joule]
t = time [seconds]

b.P = IV
where P = power [Watt]
I = current [Ampere]
V = potential difference [Volt]

From P = IV and V = IR,

P = I2 R
P = V2 /R

Electrical appliances are usually labeled by its

voltage and power rating
a.Voltage required potential difference to
operate the appliance
b.Power rating energy dissipated by the
appliance when the correct voltage is
supplied

2.5.2 POWER LABEL OF APPLIANCES

A halogen bulb labeled 240 V, 50 W:

When connected to a 240 V voltage source, the bulb will

shine with normal intensity. Power dissipated is 50 W
When connected to a voltage less than 240 V, the bulb
will shine with less intensity and power is less than 50 W
When connected to a voltage more than 240 V, the bulb
will shine with brighter intensity and power is more than
50 W. Life span of the light bulb will be shortened and
the light bulb is burned out .

2.5.3 POWER RATING AND ENERGY

CONSUMPTION

Most electrical appliances indicate their voltage

and power ratings on their label.
The label "120V 1200W" means that the hair
dryer will consumed 1200J of electrical energy
every second if it is connected to the 120 V main
supply.

Electrical energy consumed ,

E = power rating, P x Time of usage, t
The energy consumption of an electrical
appliance depends on the power rating and time
of usage.
the

larger the power rating in the electrical

appliance, the more energy is used in every second.

the

longer the usage time, the more electrical energy

is consumed.

The efficiency of an electrical appliance is determined by

the ratio of used output to the input energy.
Efficiency = (Useful power output / power input ) x 100%

A tungsten-filament light bulb uses electrical energy to

heat up the filament to a high temperature until the
tungsten atoms are excited before they emit a useful
amount of visible light. However, most of the energy is
lost to the surrounding in form of heat energy.
The fluorescent bulb activates phosphor coating inside
the lamp gives off light whrn it is exposed to ultraviolet
radiation. the bulb doesn't use heat to create light,
which is more energy efficient.

Ways to reduce energy wastage:

i)

Scheduled maintenance enable an electrical

appliances to function efficiency in ensuring
the efficiency of electrical energy usage.

ii)

Buy high energy product.

THE
END