POWER

DISTRIBUTION &
UTILIZATION (3+1)
DR TAHIR MAHMOOD
28/01/2013

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Power Distribution and Utilization (3+1)

06th Semester Course

2K10-EE

Marks Distribution:
End Semester Exam=40%: Mid Semester=20%:
Lab Work=20%: Assignments/Quiz/Seminar=20%

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Course Objectives:
Students are introduced to the basics of power distribution
systems and effective utilization of power in heating and
illumination applications.

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Course Contents:
Introduction to distribution system. Urban, suburban and rural
distribution systems. Primary, secondary and tertiary voltages.
Radial and ring main systems, application of distribution
transformers, estimation of load, load characteristics,
substation switchgears and bus bar arrangements, calculation
of voltage drop and regulation in distribution feeders.

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Course Contents:
Grounding and earthing, distribution transformer neutral,
earthing resistance, earthing practice in L.V. networks.
Power Factor: Disadvantages and causes of low power factor,
methods for improvement, application of shunt capacitors in
distribution network.

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Course Contents:
Batteries & Electrochemical Processes: Main types of batteries
and their working, battery charging, electroplating, electrolysis
and electrometallurgical process. Cathodic protection of poles,
gas pipes, oil pipes and water structures.

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Course Contents:
Heating and Welding: Electric heating, resistance, induction
and dielectric heating, electric furnaces, microwave heating,
electric welding, resistance welding and its types.
Fundamentals of Illumination Engineering: Laws, units and
terms used, requirements for good lighting, illumination
schemes
for
various
situations
(street
lighting,
commercial/industrial
lighting,
stadium/flood/stage/spot
lighting etc.), types of lamps, their working and relative merit.

Lecture #01 Course Contents

28-01-2013

Books:
1. Principles of Power Systems, V.K.Mehta and Rohit
Mehta.
2. Electric Power Distribution System Engineering, Turan
Gonen.
3. Electric distribution systems, ABDELHAY A. SALLAM,
OM P. MALIK.

Figure 1. One-line diagram showing basic power system structure

Figure 2. Radial distribution system

Figure 6.5 Loop system.

Figure 6.6 Network (Spot-network).

Table 1-1 shows typical transmission and distribution system voltages

in use at the present time.
Table 1-1. Typical Voltages in Use

Usually steel poles and towers are used for transmission

lines and wood and concrete poles for distribution circuits.
However, this distinction doesnt always hold true.

Pole Selection
Two factors must be considered in choosing poles: length and
strength required. The length of poles depends on the required
clearance above the surface of the ground, the number of
crossarms to be attached, and other equipment which may be
installed (Figure 2-4).
Provision should also be made for future additions of crossarms,
transformers, or other devices. Poles come in standard lengths
ranging from 25 to 90 feet in 5-foot differences; that is, 25 feet, 30
feet, 35 feet, and so on.
Special poles above 90 feet and below 25 feet are also available.

POLE STRENGTH
Required pole strength is determined
by the weight of crossarms, insulators,
wires, transformers, and other
equipment it must carry, as well as by
ice and wind loadings. All these forces
tend to break a pole at the ground
line.

POLE DEPTH
Soil conditions, the height of the pole,
weight and pull factors must be
considered in deciding how deep a pole
must be planted in the ground (Figure 29). Table 2-3 gives approximate setting
depths for poles in particular given
conditions.

CROSSARMS
Crossarms are most commonly used are of Steel or wood. The
usual cross-sectional dimensions for distribution crossarms are 31/2 inches by 4-1/2 inches; their length depending on the number
and spacing of the pins.

POLE PINS
Pole pins shown in Figure 2-12 are attached to the crossarms.
They are used to hold pin-type insulators. Note that they are
threaded so that the insulator can be securely screwed on.

Figure 2-12. Pole pins for attaching pin insulators to crossarms.

Connectors and Splices

Most primary connectors use some sort
of compression to join conductors (see
Figure 2.15 for common connectors).
Compression splices join two conductors
together two conductors are inserted
in each end of the sleeve, and a
compression tool is used to tighten the
sleeve around the conductors.

Connectors and Splices

Good cleaning is essential to making a good
contact between connector surfaces.
Both copper and aluminum develop a hard
oxide layer on the surface when exposed to
air.
While very beneficial in preventing
corrosion, the oxide layer has high electrical
resistance.

PIN SPACING

The spacing of the pins (see Figure 2-13) on

the crossarms must be such as to provide
enough air space between the conductors to
prevent the electric current from jumping or
flashing over from one conductor to another.
Also, sufficient spacing is necessary to
prevent contact between the wires at
locations between poles when the wires sway
in the wind.

PIN SPACING
In addition, enough space must be provided
to enable workers climbing through the
wires to work safely. The spacing on a
standard sixpin arm is 14-1/2 inches, with 30
inches between the first pins on either side of
the pole for climbing space. A special six-pin
arm with spacing wider than 30 inches is
frequently used for junction poles to provide
greater safety for the workers.

INSULATORS
Two practical insulator materials are porcelain and
glass.

INSULATORS
Pin-Type Insulators

Insulators, in compression, supporting

conductors may be classified as pin type and
post type.
The pin-type insulator is designed to be
mounted on a pin which in turn is installed on
the crossarm of the pole.
The insulator is screwed on the pin and the
electrical conductor is mounted on the insulator
(Figure 3-3).

INSULATORS
Pin-Type Insulators

This type of insulator is applicable for rural and

urban distribution circuits, and it is usually
constructed as one solid piece of porcelain or glass.
In Figure 3-4, note the grooves for the conductor and
for the tie wires.
Larger, stronger pin-type insulators are used for highvoltage transmission lines. These differ in
construction in that they consist of two or three
pieces of porcelain cemented together. These pieces
form what are called petticoats.

INSULATORS
Post-Type Insulators

Post-type insulators are somewhat similar to

pin-type insulators.
They are generally used for higher voltage
applications with the height and number of
petticoats being greater for the higher voltages.
They may be mounted horizontally as well as
vertically, although their strength is diminished
when mounted horizontally.
Advantage of Pin or Post over
Suspension Insulators? Self-reading

Figure 1.5. The left substation is a typical design with two subtransmission lines and
two transformers.
The right substation is a very reliable design with a primary ring bus, motor operated
switches, an energized spare power transformer, and a secondary transfer bus.

CONDUCTORS

Line Conductors
Line conductors may vary
in size according to the
rated voltage.

Conductor

Stranding

Al/St
Gopher

6/1

Rabbit

6/1

Dog

6/7

Panther

30/7

Osprey

18/1

Connectors
Conductors are sometimes spliced by
overlapping the ends and twisting the ends
together, taking three or four turns.
But to insure a good electrical connection as
well as uniformity in workmanship, it is wise
to connect conductors with mechanical
connectors. (Different such connectors are
shown in Figure 3-18.)

SWITCHES
Switches shown in Figure 4-25 are used to interrupt the
continuity of a circuit. They fall into two broad
classifications: air switches and oil vacuum or gas (SF6)
switches.
As their names imply, air switches are those whose contacts
are opened in air, while the other type switches are
those whose contacts are opened in oil, vacuum, or gas.
Oil switches are usually necessary only in very highvoltage, high-current circuits.
Air switches are further classified as air-break switches and
disconnect switches.

SWITCHES
Air-break Switches
The air-break switch shown in Figure 4-26 has both the
blade and the contact equipped with arcing horns.
These are pieces of metal between which the arc resulting
from opening a circuit carrying current is allowed to form.
As the switch opens, these horns are spread farther and
farther apart and the are is lengthened until it finally breaks.

Figure 4-25. Switches interrupt the continuity of a circuit. (a) Typical

switch, (b) air switch, and (c) oil switches.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

The ability of subtransmission lines and power transformers
to be electrically connected is determined by bus connections,
disconnect switches, circuit breakers, circuit switchers, and
fuses.
Together, these components determine the bus configuration
of distribution substations.
Bus configurations are an important aspect of substation
reliability, operational flexibility, and cost.
An infinite number of possible substation configurations
exist.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

The six most commonly encountered are shown in Figure
1.10.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Single Bus, Single Breaker all connections terminate on a
common bus.
They are low in cost, but must be completely de-energized for
bus maintenance of bus faults. To improve reliability, the bus
is often split and connected by a switch or breaker.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Main and Transfer Bus a transfer bus is connected to a
main bus through a tie breaker.
Circuits are normally connected to the main bus, but can be
switched to the transfer bus using sectionalizing switches.
Since circuits on the transfer bus are not protected by circuit
breakers, faults on one transferred circuit result in outages for
all transferred circuits.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Double Bus, Single Breaker utilizes a single breaker per
circuit that can be connected to either bus.
A tie breaker between buses allows circuits to be transferred
without being de-energized.
Since this configuration requires four switches per circuit,
space, maintenance, and reliability are concerns for AIS
applications.
Double bus, single breaker configurations are well suited for
GIS applications where space, maintenance, and reliability of
switches are significantly less of a concern.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Double Bus, Double Breaker each circuit is connected to
two buses through dedicated circuit breakers.
The use of two breakers per circuit makes this configuration
reliable, flexible, and expensive.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Breaker and a Half utilizes legs consisting of three series
breakers connected between two buses. Since two circuits are
connected on each leg, 1.5 breakers are required for every
circuit.
This configuration is more expensive than other options
(except double bus, double breaker), but provides high
reliability, maintainability, and flexibility.
Protective relaying is more complex than for previously
mentioned schemes.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Ring Bus arranges breakers in a closed loop with circuits
placed between breakers.
Since one breaker per circuit is required, ring buses are
economical while providing a high level of reliability.
For AIS applications, ring buses are practical up to five
circuits.
It is common to initially build a substation as a ring bus and
convert it to breaker and a half when it requires more than this
amount.

Chapter 1 : DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

1.2.2 SUBSTATIONS BUS CONFIGURATIONS

Ring BusRing buses are a natural configuration for GIS
applications with any number of circuits.
Like the breaker and a half configuration, ring bus relaying is
relatively complex.