Geo-mechanical study for stable

and safe well bore

Geomechanics
Geomechanics involves study of the behavior of soil and rock.

The two main disciplines of Geomechanics are Soil mechanics and Rock
mechanics

Rock mechanics deals with rock mass characterization and rock mass
mechanics, such as applied to petroleum industry or high depths, tunnel
design, rock breakage, and rock drilling.

Geomechanics

Geomechanics related issues are thought to cause almost half of

drilling-related NPT in HPHT, Deepwater, and other challenging
environments.
Without a strategy for avoiding or minimizing potential geomechanical
problems, the project may cost millions more than budgeted.
Today Geomechanics analysis and planning are considered a
necessary strategic component of exploration and field development
activities.

Geomechanics
The first consideration of Geomechanics is often for drilling
design.
Reduce drilling cost and duration
Predict well bore instability prior to drilling and reduce or
eliminate stuck pipe, formation collapse, formation fracture,
lost circulation etc
Predict Wellbore trajectory for complication free drilling
Establish the mud weight boundaries for safe and stable
drilling

Geomechanical Studies done by ONGC

1.Gandhar Field Geomechanics study by Schlumberger

2.Geomechanical Study to evaluate wellbore instability in

ERD wells in Western Offshore, Mumbai by Baker- Hughes
3.Wellbore stability and Formation damage study in Southern
Cambay basin by UNSW, Sydney, Australia
4.In-house beginning by IDT

IN-SITU STRESSES

WELL BORE STRESSES

Approach For Stable Well

Mud weight and Mud type/ design play major

role.
Improvement in well bore stability achieved by
use of High performance mud and Advanced
drilling technology in ONGC.
Still fails to reduce NPT to barest minimum

Missing Link

Selection of Mud weight is based on Formation

pressure (Pore pressure) given in GTO.
Pore pressure is not meant for stabilising well
bore.
It now becomes imperative to understand what
is required for Wellbore stability

Missing Link
S= + Pf
S= Overbureden stress.
= Intergranular stress/ Matrix stress (to control
caving/collapse of borehole wall.
Pf= Formation pressure or Pore pressure (to control
influx of fluid; gas or oil.

Mud Weight Selection

It is based on
Pore Pressure Gradient
Collapse Gradient
Fracture Gradient
Mud weight > Pore Pressure Gradient ~ No Kick.
Mud weight > Collapse Gradient ~ Borehole
stable (no caving).
Mud weight < Fracture Gradient ~ No lost circulation.

Background
Cauvery asset, Karaikal proposed following work to IDT under
AWP 2009-10
Formulation of very low weight (close to hydrostati ~1.05)
Drilling fluid system for drilling large section of shale and sand
alternation without isolation by casing

Fluid Design: Chemical Perspective

Shale cutting collection of subject field

Cationic Exchange Capacity tests

Capillary Suction Time tests

Linear Swellmeter test

Dispersibility test (Temperature~1100C; SG~1.05)

Fluid Design: Chemical Perspective

Following fluids provided sufficient inhibition to shale
of subject field

KCl-PHPA-Polyol fluid

Amine-PHPA fluid

Cationics-O fluids
Point of Discussion: Whether these fluids would be
able to drill the well with SG~1.05

Fluid Design: Mud Weight Perspective

As per GTO (#MDMA;Cauvery asset, Karaikal)
Expected formation pressure: Hydrostatic + 5%
Interval: 1150-1800 M covering shale and reservoir
sands
MW corresponding to this interval: 1.10-1.22
On higher side vis--vis Expected formation pressure
Why is it so?

Case Study

Patan area of Mehsana asset was taken for bringing the point
home

Wellbore instability can occur as a result of

Chemical effects
Mechanical effects
or
Combination of both

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#KAAF: Exploratory
Lithology

Interval
(meter)

Formation
Pressure

MW as per
GTO

MW actual

1.06-1.10

1.05-1.10

Phase-I (Prehydrated Bentonite Suspension)

Guj alluvium

00-540

Hydrostatic

Phase-II; KCl-K-Lignite System;KCl-12%, S.Asphalt-2%

Jhagadia

540-740

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.1.-1.12

Kand

740-1020

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.12-1.15

Babaguru

1020-1120

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.15-1.22

Tarapur

1120-1130

Hydostatic

1.10-1.15

Kalol & Kadi

110-1140

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

OCS

1140-1400

Hyd+5%

1.15-1.20

1.22-1.40

Olpad

1400-1600

Hyd-10+15%

1.20-1.26

1.40

Sidetrack-I &
II

1.50

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#KAAF: Exploratory
OBSERVATIONS
Phase-II; KCl-K-Lignite System;KCl-12%, S.Asphalt-2%
Drilled down from 400m to 1378m; SG~1.25; Observed held up at 570m
while R/I 12-1/4 bit . Reamed 570-1378 m. Increased SG~1.40
Drilled down 1378-1603m (Olpad) with SG~1.40; During P/O for W/TObserved tight hole
R/I bottom to stabilise hole; R/I 1585m; String got stuck while trying to
establish circulation. No mud return
String released while working on it; Circulation could not be established;
String got stuck at 1499m; F/T at 1394m; Cement plug placed 13921202m

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#KAAF: Exploratory
OBSERVATIONS
Sidetrack-I; KCl-K-Lignite System;KCl-12%, S.Asphalt-2%; SG~1.50
Sidetracked from 1343- 1394m; Further sidetrack could not be done as it
hit the F/Top; Placed Cement plug 1333-1244m.
Sidetrack-II; KCl-K-Lignite System;KCl-12%, S.Asphalt-2%; SG~1.50
Sidetracked from 1267m and drilled down to 1502m. Tight hole prevailed
String got stuck at 1298m
Circulated, WOS, Two oil spotting, One acid job but failed
Backed off string from 580m (Fish top), Placed cement plug 350-500m
Combination of 12% KCl & SG~1.50 insufficient to stabilise the hole

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#KAAF: Exploratory
Lithology

Interval
(meter)

Formation
Pressure

MW as per
GTO

MW actual

Sidetrack-III ; KCl-K-Lignite-Polyol ,KCl-15%, S.Asphalt-2%, Polyol-5%

440-900

1.30.-1.32

900-1100

1.32-1.43

1100-1360

1.43-1.46

1360-1500

1.46-1.51

1500-1600

1.51-1.57

Phase-III; KCl-K-Lignite-Polyol ,KCl-15%, S.Asphalt-2%, Polyol-5%

Olpad

1600-1800

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.57-1.58

1800-2000

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.58-1.59

2000-2200

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.59-1.61

2200-2350

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.61-1.64

2350-2600

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.64-1.68

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#KAAF: Exploratory
OBSERVATIONS
Sidetrack-III; KCl-K-Lignite Polyol;KCl-15%, S.Asphalt-2%, Polyol-5%;
SG~1.57
Sidetracked from 440m and drilled down to 497m.
Incorporated 5% Polyol and Increased KCl upto 15%
Recorded logs, Lowered 9-5/8 casing and cemented
Combination of 15% KCl, 5% Polyol and SG~1.57 clubbed with controlled
drilling stabilised hole in OCS/Olpad
Phase-III; KCl-K-Lignite-Polyol;KCl-15%, S.Asphalt-2%; Polyol5%SG~1.57-1.68
Deeper section (1600-2600m) of Olpad was drilled without complication
with SG~ 1.57-1.68 against GTO recommended SG~1.26

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#WPAA: Exploratory
Lithology

Interval
(meter)

Formation
Pressure

MW as per
GTO

MW actual

Guj alluvium

00-420

Hydrostatic

1.06-1.10

1.05-1.10

Jhagadia

420-810

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.18-1.25

Kand

810-1020

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.25-1.33

Babaguru

1020-1200

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.33-1.45

Tarapur

1200-1260

Hyd+10%

1.15-1.20

1.45-1.50

Kalol & Kadi

1260-1280

Hyd+10%

OCS

1280-1380

Hyd+10%

1.15-1.20

1.50.1.57

Olpad

1380-2400

Hyd+10-15%

1.20-1.26

1.57-1.76

Case Study: Mehsana Asset

#WPAB: Exploratory
Lithology

Interval
(meter)

Formation
Pressure

MW as per
GTO

MW actual

Guj alluvium

00-400

Hydrostatic

1.06-1.10

1.05-1.12

Jhagadia

400-800

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.12-1.25

Kand

800-1000

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.25-1.27

Babaguru

1000-1180

Hydrostatic

1.10-1.15

1.27-1.31

Tarapur

1180-1220

Hyd+10%

1.15-1.20

1.31-1.38

Kalol & Kadi

1220-1320

Hyd+10%

1.15-1.20

1.38-1.40

OCS

1320-1740

Hyd+15%

1.20-1.26

1.40-1.58

Olpad

1740-2600

Hyd+15%

1.26-1.28

1.58-1.75

Inferences

Hydrational stresses due to swelling of shales could be mitigated

by increasing the dose of KCl from 12% to 15%

MW to control formation pressure in Phase-III is 1.20-1.26.

MW actually maintained in Phase-III is 1.57-1.68 for borehole

stability.

Inferences
This increase in MW, indirectly is required to satisfy
collapse needs.
Other wells; WPAA & WPAB were drilled without
problems by maintaining 15% KCl in mud system and
MW in the range 1.58-1.76

Cost Analysis

Well

Rig days

Cost@Rs
0.10/day
(Rs in Crore)

Cost analysis
(Rs in Crore)

Plan

Actual

Plan

Actual

Gain

Overrun

KAAF

59.28

137

5.928

13.70

7.772

WPAB

63.2

68.2

6.32

6.82

0.50

WPAA

55.81

55

5.581

5.50

0.081

Mud Weight Window

Boundary between Pore pressure/ Collapse pressure and

Fracture pressure

Pore pressure/ Collapse pressure constitute Low bound side

and Fracture pressure upper bound side of Mud weight window

Minimum Mud weight should be in excess of Pore Pressure or

Collapse pressure whichever is higher

Mud system design (High performance inhibited) tends to move

mud weight need towards low bound side of Mud weight
window

Steps for Stability Analysis

Trajectory Analysis
TVD
Inclination ()
Azimuth ()
Field Data

In-situ Stresses
V
H
h

Cartesian Distribution
xy
yz
xz

x
y
z

Stability Analysis
Cylindrical Distribution
Poissons ratio

axial

Principal Distribution
Field Data

Failure Criteria

1
2
3

Failure Analysis
Pw max
Pw min

Safe Mud Weight Window

Inputs for Stability Analysis

Elements of a Geomechanics Model

le
b
Sta

uns
tab
le

Rock Stress

Rock Strength
Tensile strength
Shear strength

Rock strength

Rock stress

Vertical stress
Horizontal stresses
Stress direction
Pore pressure
Mud pressure
Active tectonic

The entire drilling rig team is responsible for detecting stability

problems. There are many controls to consider to achieve the balance
(stable wellbore)

Geomechanics Model Parameters

Parameter

Sv
Shmin

Pp

SHmax
UCS, friction angle
Rock strength

Sources

Vertical stress
(Sv, )

Integrate density logs

along the well vertical
depth

Least horizontal principal

stress, Shmin

LOT, XLOT, minifrac

Maximum Horizontal stress

magnitude, SHmax

Modeling

Maximum Horizontal stress

direction

Bore hole failure gives

azimuth of max hor stress

Pore Pressure, Pp

RFT, DST, sonic, seismic,

Rock strength, Co

Lab measurements, logs

The geomechanical model requires a detailed knowledge of in situ stress orientations, In situ stress
magnitudes, Pore pressure, and Effective rock strength

Inputs for wellbore stability analysis

SP/GR logs (for drawing shale baselines)
RHOB(Density log) (Determination of Overburden
gradient)
Resistivity/ Sonic logs (Determination of Pore pressure
gradient)
Poissons ratio/ LOT (Determination of Fracture gradient)
DSI log (cross dipole mode) (Determination of Shear
failure gradient)
FMI/ or Four arm caliper log (Maximum stress orientation)

Inputs for wellbore stability analysis

Rock Properties (from cores of shale)

P-Wave velocity, S-wave velocity, Youngs modulus,
Poissons ratio, UCS, Tensile strength, Cohesive strength,
Angle of friction
Software Landmark: Geostress module (Mud weight
window, Wellbore trajectory,Breakout analysis)

Fundamentals of Solid Mechanics

Rock Mechanics Terminology

Stresses: A solid can be subjected to all three stresses simultaneously

Rock Mechanics Terminology

Rock Strength: is a measure of the strength of a rock mass when
subjected to any one or a combination of three primary stresses

Compressive Stress: this stress consists of two opposing forces acting

on a rock which decreases the volume of the rock per unit area.
'Compressive strength' The stress felt in the rock at the moment it fails
is called Uniaxial compressive strength

Rock Mechanics Terminology

Tensile Stress: It occurs when material is in tension, like a cable

suspending load.
Tensile strength for a rock is usually much lower than its
compressive strength, i.e. rocks are most likely to fail under
tension well before they would fail under compression.

Rock Mechanics Terminology

Shear Stress: It induces lateral movement within the material.

Shearing action is caused by two forces acting in opposite directions
along a plane of weakness (fracture, fault, bedding plane, etc.) that is
inclined at some angle to the forces. The result is a force couple which
effectively tears the material.

Stress

Stress is independent of size of the body

It is also independent of shape of the body
Normal stress () acts normal to the plane; Shear stress()
acts along the plane
Normal stress results in Tensile or Compressive failure
Shear stress results in Shear failure where material is slipped
along a plane

Three Dimensional stress state

xy

xz

= xy

yz

xz

yz

In the analysis of solid rock;

Compressive stresses are defined as positive entities
Tensile stresses are defined as negative entities

Strain:
It is related to elasticity.
Materials that are subjected to a load (compressive, tensile, or shear)
will deform and either stretch or shrink in length.
This action is referred to as 'strain'
e = DL/L, where L is length and DL is the change in length.
This is a dimensionless number.
The ratio between stress and strain is referred to as the 'Modulus of
Elasticity', or Young's Modulus and is denoted as E.
E = P/A = s
DL/L e

Strain
= l (deformed dimension)
lo (Initial dimension)
= l2 - lo2 (Almansi formula)
2l2
= l2 - lo2 (Green formula)
2lo 2

Elasticity

=Ex
= F/A

Stress

Slope=Youngs
modulus

Strain

=l
lo

= F.l0
E.A

= / x

Elasticity: The ability of rock material to rebound to its original shape

after an applied stress is relieved.
Elastic deformation: occurs when all of the deformation caused by the
stress is restored upon its release.
Plastic deformation: when stress that is below a critical threshold
value is released, all of the deformation is restored.
However, if the applied stress exceeds the threshold value (which
differs for various materials and rock types), permanent deformation
results due to the load.

Rock Mechanics Terminology

Stages of deformation

Brittle vs Ductile failure

Poissons ratio

Poissons Ratio = Lateral Strain / Axial

Strain.
Value of the Poissons ratio varies in
natural rock from between 0.1 to 0.5.

Use of Poisson's ratio is in the analysis of the propagation of an

energy wave generated by an earthquake.

This wave moves through solid rock and is, therefore, somewhat
subjected to rock properties.

The speed of propagation, or wave velocity, is dependent upon the

Poisson's ratio of the rock.

As rock type changes, wave velocity changes as a function of rock

properties.

P-Wave : Longitudinal sound wave; Can travel in any

material
S-Wave: Transverse sound wave; Travel in solids only
Cross plotting of P-wave & S-wave velocities allow
determination of
Rock properties such as
1.Fracture Density & Orientation
2.Poissons ratio
3.Rock type

Principal Stresses; Deviatoric

Stresses

Principal Stresses
The three stresses normal to the principal planes of a
three dimensional stressed body in which associated
shear stresses are zero
A)

xy

xz

= xy

yz

xz
B)

yz

x -

xy

xy

y -

xz

yz

z
xz
yz = 0
z -

Principal Stresses
3 - I12 - I2 - I3 = 0
Where
I1 = x + y + z
I2 = xy2 + xz2 + yz2 - xy - xz - yz
I3 = x(yz - yz2) - xy(xyz - xzyz) + xz (xyyz -xzy)

I1, I2 and I3 are invariants as they remain unchanged for a

given stress state regardless of orientation of the coordinate
system
Equation C) always has three real roots
These roots are called Principal stresses; 1, 2 and 3 where
1 > 2 > 3

Average and Deviatoric Stresses

Average stress is given by
D) m = 1 (x + y + z )
The total stress is sum of Average stress and Deviatoric stress
E)

xy

xz

xy

yz

xz

yz

m
=

x -m
+

xy
xz

0
m
xy

y -m
yz

xz
yz
z -m

Average and Deviatoric Stresses

The reason for splitting stress into two components is that many
failure mechanisms are caused by deviatoric stress

Deviatoric stress actually reflects shear stress level

The Deviatoric invariants are as follows

J1 = 0
J 2= 1 [(1 - 2 )2 + (1 - 3 )2 + (2 - 3 )2]
6
J3 = I3 + 1 I1I2 + 2 I13
3
27

Average and Deviatoric Stresses

The physical interpretation of the above invariants is that any

stress state can be decomposed into its hydrostatic and
deviatoric stress component

Hydrostatic component causes volume change in the body but

not shape change

The Deviatoric component is the reason for shape change , and

eventual rise in shear stresses

General Interpretation of Principal Stresses

If all three principal stresses are equal, no shear stresses will

exist
This means that principal stresses exist in all directions
It can be presented as sphere if plotted in space
This is known as Hydrostatic state of stress

[] = 0

General Interpretation of Principal Stresses

In Hydrostatic state of stress, there are no shear stresses. It can

be concluded that:
Shear stresses arise when the principal stresses are different
A fluid under compression is in hydrostatic equilibrium
A fluid at rest can not transmit shear stress
Maximum shear stress is equal to one half the difference of the
principal stresses

[] = 0

General Interpretation of Principal Stresses

Complex case occurs when two of the principal stresses are

equal but different from the third. There will be symmetry in the
plane which is orthogonal to the third stress component
This cylindrical stress state is normally used when rock core
plugs are tested in laboratory
This stress state is often used for well bore stability analysis

1
1

[] = 0

General Interpretation of Principal Stresses

The third stress state is Tri axial stress state

All principal stresses have different values

1
1
3
2

[] = 0

Failure Criteria

Modeling Rock Failure: the

Failure Criteria

Failure criteria are means of generalizing

results of tests with simple stress
conditions to apply to complex, 3-D
stress conditions.
Simple tests typically conducted in
triaxial apparatus in which minimum
and intermediate principal stresses are
equal.
Some use even simpler unconfined
compressive strength (UCS) tests with
zero confinement and assume the
pore pressure = 0.
Examples of failure criteria include

Mohr Coulomb
Drucker Prager

Rock Strength Parameters

UCS
an index measure of rock strength. Denotes the maximum
compressive stress a material can sustain when unconfined.
Cohesion (Co)
the intercept on the shear stress axis of a straight-line MohrCoulomb envelope.
In physics, cohesion is described as the force that holds together
molecules or like particles within a substance.
Friction Angle (FANG)
Measure of internal rock friction, controlling intergranular slip
Tensile Strength
Maximum tensile force rock can sustain

Failure Criteria
Mohr Coulumb Criterion

Unstable
Stable

Failure line
Shear stress ()

1-3
2

22
3

1-3

Principal
stress ()

1
Failure line

= c + ; = 1 (1 - 3)cos; = 1 (1 + 3) 1 (1 - 3)sin
2
2
2

Effect of Mud Weight

Increasing mud weight causes
Increased radial stress which support the rock and prevents shear failure
Makes the Mohr circle smaller
Pushes the state of stress to the safe region

Axial stress
Axial stress

radial
stress

Hoop
stress

radial
stress

Low mud weight

causes wellbore
failure
higher mud weight
pushes stress state
to safe condition

radial Stress Higher radial Axial stress

(least)
Stress (higher (greatest)
mud weight)

Effect of Mud Weight - Continued

Increasing mud weight causes
Reduced hoop stress
Increased radial stress
If we plot Mohr circle with the two stresses as the least and greatest stresses we notice the
following:

Axial stress
Axial stress

radial
stress

Hoop
stress

radial
stress

Low mud weight

radial Stress
(least)

higher mud weight

Hoop stress
(greatest)

Effect of Mud Weight

Excessive increase in mud weight causes
Negative hoop stress
Increased radial stress
If we plot Mohr circle with the two stresses as the least and greatest stresses we notice the
following:

Axial stress
Low mud weight

higher mud weight

radial
stress

Hoop
stress

Old radial
Stress (least)
New hoop stress
(lowest, negative)

Old hoop stress

(least)
New radial stress
(greatest)

Effect of Mud Filter Cake

Strong, impermeable, flexible, and thin filter cake helps prevent differential
sticking, and stabilize the wellbore
Cake prevents the penetration of drilling fluid pressure into the near wellbore
region. Therefore, the stabilizing effect of mud pressure against the wellbore is
preserved
If there is no cake, the drilling fluid pressure equalize the pressure in near
wellbore reducing the radial stress to ZERO. Also the hoop stress will decrease

Axial stress
radial
stress

State of stress
with no mud cake
State of stress with
mud cake

Hoop
stress
hoop stress
Filter Cake

Radial Stress
(zero-least)

Failure Criteria
Von Mises Criterion
J2 = 1 (1 - 3)
3

Failure
J2

Intact

m-P0 = 1 (1+23) P0
3

m-P0

Failure Criteria
Griffith Criterion

2a

t = keE
a
(1 - 3)2 = -8t (1 + 3)

Failure Criteria
Hoek-Brown Criterion

Failure

1/c

Intact

3/c

1 = 3 + Ifc3 + Iic2

oct

Failure Criteria
Mogi-Coulumb Criterion

Failure

Intact

oct = k + moct
oct = 1 (1-2) 2+(1-2) 2+(1-2) 2 = 2 J2
3
3
oct = 1 (1+2+1)
3

oct

Petroleum Rock Mechanics:

Effective Stress

Effective Stresses

overburden
Grain to grain contact

Fluid pressure

Effective Stress
Total Stress = Pore Pressure + Effective Stress
(S)
(Pf)
()

Randy Smith

Effective Stress Ratio

Overburden Stress
Sv

Pressure Required to Keep

Water & Rock Grains from
Squashing Out
P
sV
Horizontally

Total
Stress

sh

Sh

Pore Pressure

SV = P + sV
Sh = P + sh = P + K sV

Pore
Pressure
sh
K= s
V

Effective
Stress

= Effective Stress Ratio;

K increases with ductility.

Petroleum Rock Mechanics:

In-Situ Stresses

Overburden - Sv
The pressure exerted on a formation due
to the total weight of the rocks and fluid
above that depth.
As the rock is pushed vertically, it is
squeezed horizontally, causing horizontal
stresses to build.
Terzaghis Law:
Sv = v + Pp

Horizontal Stresses

H and h

In many drilling
environments, the horizontal
stresses are equal.

When drilling near massive

structures such as salt
domes or in tectonic areas,
the horizontal stresses differ.

Maximum Horizontal Stress (H) estimated from rock mechanics

Minimum Horizontal Stress (h) determined from XLOT Fracture
closure pressure.

Creation of Horizontal Stresses H and h

Tectonic Loading is a typical mechanism for creating Horizontal

Stresses H and h within the earth.

Cause of In Situ Horizontal Stress

Free Standing Elements Squash Out
Horizontally As They Are Squeezed Vertically

Closely Packed Elements Push Against

Each Other, Generate Horizontal Pressure

Far Field Stresses

v H and h

Before a well is drilled, the rock is in a state of equilibrium,

its stresses are known as Far Field Stresses.
When a well is drilled it introduces a new set of stresses
known as Wellbore Stresses (influenced by Far Field
Stresses and MW.)

Wellbore Stresses

t
r

r t and a
a

r = Radial Stress
r = MW PP
t = Tangential Stress
t = 3 h - H - MW PP
a = Axial Stress

a = v - PP

In-SituStresses
Vertical Stress
V = b (h) gdh
b = R (1 - ) + F.
V = b.g.d = b.d
V = 0.434 .d
v

b Formation bulk density lb/ft3

g Gravitational constant 32.175ft/sec2
h Vertical thickness of rock ft
R Rock grain density
F Pore fluid density

v=1

H=2

h
Rock In-situ stresses
v >H >h

h=3
Rock In-situ principal stresses
For drilled vertical well

Extended LOT

Horizontal Stress
h = (v - P0) + P0
1-

Pb =3h - H Po + To
H =3h + To Po - Pb

Biot constant
b rock formation specific weight
Poissons ratio
Po Pore pressure
To Rock tensile strength
Pb Formation breakdown pressure

Stresses around Wellbore

a
h

Rock formation with uniform

Stress state

Rock formation with a drilled hole

Where the stress state will not remain
unchanged

Petroleum Rock Mechanics:

Stress Anisotropy

Stress Anisotropy

Rock Failure Modes

3

Tensile
Failure

3
Tensile Stress

Shear
Failure

3
3

1
1
Compressive Stress Difference

Shear Failure

Randy Smith

Rock Failure
Shear Failure Modes
Failure Condition

Name

>a >r

Breakout

a > >r

Toric Shear

a >r >

Helical Shear

r >a >

Elongated Shear

Tensile Failure Modes

< r
- Pp < t
r <
r - Pp < t

Hydraulic Fracture
Exfoliation

Rock Failure: Breakout Failure

It is also known as Onion peel failure
Insufficient support to the wellbore wall by drilling fluid
Breakouts are usually oriented towards the axis minimum
horizontal stress
Once it is initiated, it continues to grow resulting into
irregular variation in diameter
>a >r

Rock Failure: Toric Failure

It is similar to Breakout failure
It results from insufficient support to the wellbore wall by drilling fluid
It is Overburden stress rather than horizontal stresses which causes
the failure
Toric failure can extend along the whole circumference of the
wellbore
a > >r

Rock Failure: Helical Shear Failure

Vertical stress is balanced by Radial stress exerted by drilling fluid
But the tangential stresses are insufficiently balanced to keep the
formation balanced
The situation will cause the formation to shear downwards
The failure can extend along the whole circumference of the
wellbore
a >r >

Rock Failure: Elongated Shear Failure

It is a result of excessive mud pressure with insufficient horizontal
stresses to hold the wellbore together
It is similar to Breakout failure, but rotated 900 around the
longitudinal axis of the wellbore
Due to rotation it is oriented towards maximum horizontal stress
direction
The failure plane is further exaggerated in length, hence the name
elongated
r>a >

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Hydraulic Fracturing

It is a result of mud pressure exceeding tensile strength of rock
The fracture will initiate and propagate along the plane where
formation compressive stress is reduced to zero i.e. perpendicular
to the minimum principal stress
Orientation of fracture plane and fracture propagation direction
depends on Stress regimes
< r
- Pp < t

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Hydraulic Fracturing

1
2

Fracture propagation
direction
3

Normal Fault: v >H

(1) (2)

>h
(3)

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Hydraulic Fracturing

2
1

Fracture propagation
direction
3

Strike slip Fault: H

(1)

>V
(2)

>h
(3)

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Hydraulic Fracturing

3
1

Fracture propagation
direction

Reverse Fault: H >h

>V
(1) (2) (3)

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Exfoliation

Exfoliation usually occurs when the pore pressure exceeds the mud
pressure and will come as the result of induced matrix deformations
under predominantly undrained conditions

Rock Failure: Tensile Failure: Exfoliation

Exfoliation usually occurs when the pore pressure exceeds the mud
pressure and will come as the result of induced matrix deformations
under predominantly undrained conditions

Wellbore Breakout Analysis

Borehole breakouts occur in the direction of

minimum horizontal stress with the maximum
horizontal stress orientation being perpendicular to
the breakout direction.

Drilling approach: Normal Faulting Stress Regime

The most stable direction for drilling is along the azimuth of h
The inclination angle should increase as the difference between
H and h increases
If the horizontal stresses are equal (H = h) then the inclination
angle should be zero
If major horizontal stress is equal to the vertical stress (H and V)
then the well should be drilled horizontally (900)

Drilling approach: Strike Slip Faulting Stress Regime

The most stable direction for drilling is horizontally (90 0)
The most stable direction to depends on ratio of principal
horizontal stress to the vertical stress
Generally as the difference between the horizontal stresses
increases, the direction needs to get closer to the direction of H
As the ration between the major stress and the vertical stress
increases, the most stable drilling direction gets closer to the
direction of H
If minor horizontal stress is equal to the vertical stress (h and V)
then the well should be drilled along the azimuth of H

Drilling approach: Reverse Faulting Stress Regime

The most stable direction for drilling is along the azimuth of H
The inclination angle should increase as the difference between
H and h increases
If the horizontal stresses are equal (H = h) then the well should
be drilled vertically
If (H = h), then the well should be drilled horizontally

Effect of Depletion

stress
pressure
depletion
in stratum

lateral stress
redistribution

depleted sand

stress
concentration

depth

Drop in pore pressure in depleted

zone.
The reservoir shrinks because of
drop in pore pressure.
Increase in horizontal stresses
above and below the zone.
Effect of vertical stresses are
negligible.

EFFECT OF DEPLETION
Consequences:
Slower drilling rate because rock is tougher
Lost circulation and blow out risks go up substantially.
More casing strings and LCM squeezes.
Most serious in HTHP wells, Multiple zones.

Hole Instability

Cavings Due to Underbalance vs

Mechanical Instability
Underbalance
Front

Mechanical Instability
Side

Delicate, Spikey
Shapes
Top

Concave Surface

Front

Top

Side

Blocky, or Angular
Shapes

Cavings Due To Underbalance

In Situ
Horizontal
Stress

Sh

Path of Least
Resistance for
Fracture
Pmud

Wellbore

Pmud

Concave Shape

Pore
Pressure
Blows Chips
Into Wellbore

Cavings Due To Mechanical Instability

In Situ
Horizontal
Stress

Hoop Stress
Sh

Shear Plane
Pmud

Wellbo
re
Pmud

Blocky Shape

Hoop Stress
Squeezes
Chips Into
Wellbore

Wellbore Stability and Geomechanics

Affecting Parameters While Drilling
Controllable Factors

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Density
Why is it important?

Avoiding:
Kicks or Blowout
MW PP

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Density
Why is it important?

Avoiding:
Borehole collapse
MW ShF

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Density
Why is it important?

Avoiding:
Fracturing Borehole
MW FG

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Stable mud weight operational window

Constructing a Stable Wellbore

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Why is mud rheology important?

In narrow windows where lower ECD is required, high shear thinning behavio

Mud Chemistry and Properties

What about thixotropy?

Gel Strength

Bad (Progressive)

Good (Fragile)

Time

Progressive Gels

Gel Structure

Large swab and surge pressure

Difficulties when logging

Mud Chemistry and Properties

What about thixotropy?

Mud Chemistry and Properties

Why is the muds filter loss important?

Micro-fractured Formation

In fractured formation

Higher changes in pore pressure

(easy hydraulic pressure transmission)

Mud Chemistry and Properties

We need to avoid infiltration of fluids using the correct blend of
sealing materials

Mud Chemistry (Rock-Fluid Interaction)

Clays: What they look like

Mud Chemistry (Rock-Fluid Interaction)

Mud Chemistry (Rock-Fluid Interaction)

Good Drilling Practices

Hydraulic Optimization: Smart use of energy
Hydraulic pressure transmission

Bottom Hole Cleaning

( a nightmare)

Good in the Bottom

Bad in the annulus
Stuck Pipe
High Torque
High Drag
Tensile Failure

Equivalent Circulation Density (ECD)

Share Failure
Changes in PP

Good Drilling Practices

Hole Cleaning: So difficult in highly inclined wells
Mud Weight Out (lb/gal)
19
Mud Weight In = 17 lb/gal
Samples from Shaker Underflow
18.5
18
Pressurized Balance

17.5
17

Baseline Weight

16.5
16

15.5

25

50

75

100

125

150

175

Circulating Time (min)

Difficulty
2
3

4
0

30

60

Inclination

90

Good Drilling Practices

Hole Cleaning: Best practices
Use rotary drilling as far as possible than sliding, but if
sliding is necessary for trajectory control, put special attention.
Use the maximum hydraulic capacity available (pump flow
rate), consider wellbore stability issues and optimize mud
velocity.
Establish a strategy for hole cleaning practices.

Good Drilling Practices

Hole Cleaning: Best practices
Muds rheology under bottom conditions has to be optimized.
Annular velocity should be lower (big pipes better than small
ones).
Control ROP and avoid ROP peaks and borehole
disturbances ( a few small cuttings is preferred than a large
quantity of bigger cuttings).
Spend some hours to clean efficiently, than spend days
solving problems.
Minimize the length of 40-60o deviation is a must.
A young cutting bed is easier to remove than old one. So you
have to detected it ASAP (permanent monitoring of torque,
weight and traction, amount of cuttings returning to surfaces,
etc.)

Good Drilling Practices

Tripping and Running casing
Pipe movement into the hole should be gentle
and smoothe
Pw
Pp

r/R

Pw
Pp

r/R

Good Drilling Practices

Cementing:
Poor cementing jobs always cause
problems in the future
Deficient Bound
Canalization
Stress concentration
Casing displacement
Casing collapse

Wellbore Stability: Summary

Consider the effect of mud weight but also note the

interaction of other factors which control WBS, such as:

Well planning and well trajectory

Drilling practices (swab/surge pressures)
Drilling fluids (chemical effects)
Non-shear failure (e.g. regions of pre-fractured rock)

Wellbore stability is often, but not always, a mud weight issue.

Allowable Mud Weight Range

Mud Weights
Sea Floor

Must lie within the range bounded by:

Fracture
Gradient

- Pore Pressure
Casing
Used when mud weights must be
increased
above shallow fracture gradients to keep
pace with deeper pore pressures.

Depth

- Fracture Gradient

Casing
Point
Mud
Weight
Pore
Pressure

Equivalent Mud Weight

Shear Failure

Modified Lade
SHg=.5(OBG+FG)
Assumes vertical well.
Zero breakouts

FLUIDS FOR SHALE CONTROL

Chrome Lignite- Chrome Lignosulphonate

System
Inhibition of shale through maintaining CL-CLS in
desired ratio
Advantage
Solid tolerant
Thermally stable (~1700C)
Stabilising Borehole in conjunction with weight
Application
Extensively used in Exploratory drilling

KCl-K-Lignite Mud System

Enhanced Inhibition of shale through Potassium ions
Advantage
Solid tolerant
Thermally stable (~1700C)
Stabilise Borehole with lesser SG of Mud
Application
Extensively used in Exploratory drilling

Low Solids Non dispersed Polymer (PHPA) Mud

System
Better inhibition of shale through encapsulation of cutting
and coating of borehole wall by Polymer
Advantage
Increased ROP
Borehole stability
Gauged hole
Improved hole cleaning
Further cut in SG of mud for borehole stability
Application
Extensively used in Development drilling

Polyol System
Better inhibition of shale through manipulating clouding
of Polyol at required BHT with salt. Able to sustain
differential pressure.
Advantage
Increased ROP
Borehole stability
Improvement in lubricity
Good control over HTHP fluid loss
Complication free drilling
Application
Extensively used in development drilling

Amine based HPWBM

Amines derivatives are considered as good a shale
inhibitor as Potassium chloride, hence has the potential
to replace KCl in drilling fluid.
Advantage
Less dose vis-s-vis KCl
Borehole stability
Complication free drilling
Preventing Accretion

Bentonite pellet in 2% KCl (LSM study): Bentonite pellet

crumbles appreciably

Bentonite pellet in 2% Amine (LSM study): Crumbling of

Bentonite pellet is checked

Aftermath of Bit and Collar balling on the rig floor using 20%
NaCl in mud in GOM (Left photo)
Appearance of BHA when drilled with 20% NaCl+Amine+ROP
enhancer (Right photo)

HTHP Drilling Fluid

To meet the requirement of HTHP conditions where
conventional water base fluid fails to work

Advantage
Stable up to 236C.
Can be weighed up to 2.20 specific gravity.
Can be prepared in fresh as well as salt water

Fluid for Sub hydrostatic pressure

It is also meant to prevent pay zone damage where mud
weight requirement is <1.0. Its pressure rating is 40006000 psi, average particle size ~50 microns, average
density~0.38 and is able to pass through solids control
equipment.
Advantage
Prevention of pay zone damage in depleted reservoir
(Pressure <1.0 MWE)
Enhancement of Productivity
Control of mud loss in depleted fields.

Low Toxicity Oil Base Mud

Water based drilling fluid sometimes fail to deliver. Oil
base system comes to rescue. It gives excellent well
bore stability, flat rheology profile and superior lubricity
Advantage
Increased ROP
Borehole stability
Improvement in lubricity
Good control over HTHP fluid loss
Complication free drilling

FLUIDS FOR PAY ZONE DRILLING

Non Damaging Drilling Fluid

NDDF Based on MCC

It is meant to prevent pay zone damage. Non damaging
and degradable constituents are used for its formulation.
Acid degradable Micronised Calcium Carbonate is used
as bridging material. The fluid is water based.
Advantage
Prevention of pay zone damage
Enhancement of Productivity
Application
Recommended for drilling pay zone of all development
wells

NDDF Based on Na formate/ K formate

Sodium/ Potassium formate are high specific gravity
solids free fluids(SG~ 1.33 with Sod formate and upto
1.55 with Pot. Formate) which do not effect rheology
adversely. The salts are inhibitive in nature and sustain
temperature ~2250C.
Advantage
Prevention of pay zone damage
Enhancement of Productivity

Microbubble Fluid
It can be used for drilling depleted reservoirs and
simultaneously controlling partial to total mud loss encountered
without any LCM pill.
Advantage
It creates a microenvironment of bubbles and high low shear
viscosity which instantly stops loss of drilling fluid.
Microbubble resists coalescence and aggregation and remains as
discreet bubble when entering into producing zones leading to less
invasion of reservoir and easy clean up during flow back.
Being solid free no mud cake is formed and chances of differential
sticking are minimized.
Total well cost can be reduced considerably.
154

Comparative Drilling Fluid Performance

Mineral OBM

Wellbore stability

Ester

Formation damage
avoidance

Lubricity

Glycol WBM
KCl / PHPA
SBM
Bentonite WBM

Tolerance to
contaminants

Thermal
stability

Corrosivity
Overall drilling
performance

Environmental
acceptability

Case Study: Geomechanics

Modeling

Postdrill stability analysis of Well A, Mehsana Asset from Sonic trends

157

Caliper

10.8 14

Mud Weight maintained

13.33 14.41 ppg

Trajectory Analysis

ONGC a Wealth Creator

Octahedral stresses we call the normal and shear stresses that

are acting on some specific planes inside the stressed body, the
octahedral planes. If we consider the principal directions as the
coordinate axes (see also the article:
Principal stresses and stress invariants), then the plane whose
normal vector forms equal angles with the coordinate system is
called octahedral plane. There are eight such planes forming an
octahedron as it is illustrated in Fig. 1.