Chapter 16

Diodes and
Applications

Objectives
Understand the basic structure of
semiconductors and how they conduct current
Describe the characteristics and biasing of a
pn junction diode
Describe the basic diode characteristics
Analyze the operation of a half-wave rectifier
and a full-wave rectifier

Objectives
Describe the operation of power supplies
Understand the basic operation and describe
some applications of four special-purpose
diodes

Introduction to Semiconductors
Two types of semiconductive materials are silicon
and germainium
both have four valance electrons

When silicon and germanium atoms combine into

molecules to form a solid material, they arrange
themselves in a fixed pattern called a crystal
atoms within the crystal structure are held together by
covalent bonds (atoms share valence electrons)

An intrinsic crystal is one that has no impurities

Introduction to Semiconductors
When an electron jumps to
the conduction band, a
vacancy is left in the
valence band within the
crystal (called a hole)
called an electron-hole pair

Recombination occurs
when a conduction-band
electron loses energy and
falls back into a hole in the
valence band

Introduction to Semiconductors
In an intrinsic semiconductor, there are relatively
few free electrons
pure semiconductive materials are neither good
conductors nor good insulators

Intrinsic semiconductive materials must be

modified by increasing the free electrons and
holes to increase its conductivity and make it
useful for electronic devices
by adding impurities, n-type and p-type extrinsic
semiconductive material can be produced

Introduction to Semiconductors
Doping is the process of adding impurities to
intrinsic semiconductive materials to increase and
control conductivity within the material
n-type material is formed by adding pentavalent (5
valence electrons) impurity atoms
electrons are called majority carriers in n-type material
holes are called minority carriers in n-type material

p-type material is formed by adding trivalent (3

valence electrons) impurity atoms
holes are called majority carriers in p-type material
electrons are called minority carriers in p-type material

The PN Junction Diode

A diode consists of an n region and a p region
separated by a pn junction
the n region has many conduction electrons
the p region has many holes

As a result of recombination, a large number of

positive (in the n region) and negative (in the p
region) ions builds up near the pn junction,
essentially depleting the region of any conduction
electrons or holes - termed the depletion region

The PN Junction Diode

The barrier potential, VB, is the amount of
voltage required to move electrons through
the electric field
At 25C, it is approximately 0.7 V for silicon
and 0.3 V for germanium
As the junction temperature increases, the
barrier potential decreases, and vice versa

The PN Junction Diode

Forward bias is the condition that permits current
through a diode
the negative terminal of the VBIAS source is connected to the
n region, and the positive terminal is connected to the p
region

The PN Junction Diode

The negative terminal of the bias-voltage source
pushes the conduction-band electrons in the n
region toward the pn junction, while the positive
terminal pushes the holes in the p region toward
the pn junction
When it overcomes the barrier potential (VB), the
external voltage source provides the n region
electrons with enough energy to penetrate the
depletion region and move through the junction

The PN Junction Diode

Reverse bias is the condition that prevent current
through the diode
the negative terminal of the VBIAS source is connected to
the p region, and the positive terminal is connected to the
n region

If the external reverse-bias voltage is increased to a

large enough value, reverse breakdown occurs
minority conduction-band electrons acquire enough
energy from the external source to accelerate toward the
positive end of the diode, colliding with atoms and
knocking valence electrons into the conduction band

Diode Characteristics

Diode Characteristics
The arrowhead in the diode symbol points in the
direction opposite the electron flow
The anode (A) is the p region
The cathode (K) is the n region

Diode Characteristics
The simplest way to visualize diode
operation is to think of it as a switch
When forward-biased, the diode ideally acts as
a closed (on) switch
When reverse-biased, it acts as an open (off)
switch

Diode Rectifiers
A diode is connected to
an ac source that
provides the input
voltage, Vin, and to a
load resistor, RL,
forming a half-wave
rectifier
on the positive halfcycle, the diode is
forward biased

Diode Rectifiers
When the diode barrier potential is taken into
account, as in the practical model, the input voltage
must overcome the barrier potential before the
diode becomes forward-biased
This results in a half-wave output voltage with a peak
value that is 0.7 V less than the peak value of the input
voltage
It is often practical to neglect the effect of barrier
potential when the peak value of the applied voltage is
much greater than the barrier potential

Diode Rectifiers
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum value of
reverse voltage that a diode can withstand
A full-wave rectifier allows unidirectional current to
the load during the entire input cycle
whereas the half-wave rectifier allows this only during
one-half of the cycle

The average value for a full-wave rectifier output

voltage is twice that of the half-wave rectifier

VAVG = 2VP(out) /

Diode Rectifiers
The full-wave bridge rectifier uses four
diodes, as shown on the next slide
When the input cycle is positive as in part (a),
diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct
current, while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased
When the input cycle is negative as in part (b),
diodes D3 and D4 are forward-biased and conduct
current, while diodes D1 and D2 are reverse-biased

Diode Rectifiers

Diode Rectifiers
Two diodes are always in series with the load during
both the positive and negative half-cycles
Neglecting the barrier potentials of the the two
diodes, the output voltage is a full-wave rectified
voltage with a peak value equal to the peak
secondary voltage
The PIV of the diodes must equal the peak secondary
voltage:

PIV = VP(out)

Power Supplies
The dc power supply converts the standard 110 V,
60 Hz ac available at the wall outlets into a
constant dc voltage
dc voltage is used in most electronic circuits

A capacitor is used to filter the output of the

rectifier, charging during each quarter-cycle that
the input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage,
and discharging through the load when the input
voltage decreases below the capacitor voltage, at
which point the diodes become reverse biased

Power Supplies
Since the capacitor charges to a peak value equal
to VP(in), the peak inverse voltage of the diode in
this application must be:

PIV = 2 VP(in)
Ripple voltage is the variation in output voltage
due to charging and discharging of the capacitor
For a given input frequency, ripple voltage for a fullwave rectifier will be less than that for a half-wave
rectifier

Power Supplies
An integrated circuit regulator (three-terminal regulator)
is a device that is connected to the output of a filtered
rectifier and maintains a constant output voltage despite
changes in the input voltage or the load current

Special Purpose Diodes

The zener diode is used to provide an output
reference voltage that is stable despite changes in
input voltage
Used as a reference in regulated power supplies
The zener diode is designed for operation in the reverse
breakdown region, where the voltage remains almost
constant over a wide range of reverse current values

Special Purpose Diodes

A varactor diode utilize the inherent capacitance of
the depletion region of a reverse-biased pn junction
to vary capacitance by changing the reverse voltage
The p and n regions are conductive, and act as the
capacitor plates
The depletion layer created by the reverse bias acts as a
capacitor dielectric because it is nonconductive
as the reverse bias increases, the depletion region widens, and the
capacitance across the diode decreases
as the reverse bias decreases, the depletion region narrows, and
the capacitance across the diode increases

Special Purpose Diodes

The light-emitting diode (LED)
when the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the
pn junction from the n-type material and recombine
with holes in the p-type material
Since the electrons in the conduction band are at a
higher energy level than the holes in the valence band,
when recombination takes place, energy is released in
the form of heat and light
A large exposed surface on one layer of the LED
permits the photons to be emitted as light, termed
electroluminescence

Summary
The process of adding impurities to an intrinsic
(pure) semiconductor to increase and control
conductivity is called doping
A p-type semiconductor is doped with trivalent
impurity atoms
a n-type semiconductor is doped with pentavalent
impurity atoms
The depletion region is a region adjacent to the pn
junction containing no majority carriers

Summary
Forward bias permits majority carrier current
through the diode
Reverse bias prevents majority carrier current
The single diode in a half-wave rectifier conducts for
half of the input cycle
The PIV is the maximum voltage appearing across
the diode in reverse bias
The output frequency of a full-wave rectifier is twice
the input frequency

Summary
A capacitor-input filter provides a dc output
approximately equal to the peak of the input
Ripple voltage is caused by the charging and
discharging of the filter capacitor
Regulation of output voltage over a range of input
voltages is called input or line regulation
The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown
A zener diode maintains an essentially constant
voltage across its terminals over a specified range of
zener currents

Summary
Zener diodes can be used as voltage references in a
variety of applications
A varactor diode acts as a variable capacitor under
reverse-biased conditions
The capacitance of a varactor diode varies inversely
with reverse-biased voltage