ADDITIONAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

DEVELOP THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREMS

These are two very powerful analysis tools that allow us to
focus on parts of a circuit and hide away unnecessary complexities
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
This is a very useful application of Thevenins and Nortons theorems

THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREM

These are some of the most

powerful analysis results to be
discussed.
They permit to hide information
that is not relevant and concentrate
in what is important to the analysis

Low distortion audio power amplifier

TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND

AMPLIFIER ONE SHOULD ANALYZ
THIS CIRCUIT

From PreAmp
(voltage )

To speakers

Courtesy of M.J. Renardson

http://angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/index.ht
ml
TO MATCH SPEAKERS AND AMPLIFIER
IT IS MUCH EASIER TO CONSIDER THIS
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT!

T H

+
-

TH

REPLACE AMPLIFIER
BY SIMPLER
EQUIVALENT

THEVENINS EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

RTH

vTH

vO

a
L IN E A R C IR C U IT

vO
_

PART A
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
for PART A

vTH

TheveninEquivalentSource

RTH

TheveninEquivalentResistance

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART B

PART B

NORTONS EQUIVALENCE THEOREM

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

RN

PART A
Norton Equivalent Circuit
for PART A

RN

Norton Equivalent Source

Norton Equivalent Resistance

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART B

a
L IN E A R C IR C U IT

vO
_

iN

vO

iN

PART B

OUTLINE OF PROOF
L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

vO
_

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART B

1. Because of the linearity of the models, for any Part B the relationsh
between Vo and the current, i, has to be of the form
v m *i n
O

2. Result must hold for every valid Part B that we can imagine

n vOC
3. If part B is an open circuit then i=0 and...
4. If Part B is a short circuit then Vo is zero. In this case

0 m * iSC vOC

vOC
m
RTH
iSC

vO RTH i vOC

THEVENIN APPROACH
L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

vO

vO RTH i vOC
R

vOC

+
_

TH

vO

PART A MUST BEHAVE LIKE

THIS CIRCUIT

ANY
PA RT B

For ANY circuit in Part B

This is the Thevenin equivalent

circuit for the circuit in Part A
The voltage source is called the
THEVENIN EQUIVALENT SOURCE
The resistance is called the
THEVENIN EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE

Norton ApproachvO vOC RTH i i

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th eir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

i a

i SC

RTH

vO

Norton

vOC
i SC
RTH

vO
_

vOC
v
O
RTH RTH

ANY
PA RT B

Norton Equivalent
Representa
tion for Part A
i SC Norton EquivalentSource

ANOTHER VIEW OF THEVENINS AND NORTONS THEOREMS

vOC

+
_

i a

TH

Thevenin

vO

i SC

i SC

vOC

RTH

RTH

vO

Norton

This equivalence can be viewed as a source transformation proble

It shows how to convert a voltage source in series with a resistor
into an equivalent current source in parallel with the resistor
SOURCE TRANSFORMATION CAN BE A GOOD TOOL TO REDUCE THE
COMPLEXITY OF A CIRCUIT

EXAMPLE: SOLVE BY SOURCE TRANSFORMATION

In between the terminals we connect a cur
source and a resistance in parallel

The equivalent current source will have the

value 12V/3k

The 3k and the 6k resistors now are in para

and can be combined

In between the terminals we connect a vol

source in series with the resistor
The equivalent source has value 4mA*2k

The 2k and the 2k resistor become connec

in series and can be combined

After the transformation the sources can be com

The equivalent current source has value 8V/4k

and the combined current source has value 4mA
Options at this point

1. Do another source transformation and g

a single loop circuit
2. Use current divider to compute I_0 and
compute V_0 using Ohms law

A General Procedure to Determine the Thevenin Equivalent

vTH
i SC

RTH

OpenCircuit vo
ltage
voltageat a - b if PartB is removed
ShortCircuitCurrent
currentthrougha - b if PartB is replaced
by a shortcircuit
v
TH
TheveninEquivalentResistance One circuit problem
i SC

1. Determine the Remove part B and

Thevenin equivalentcompute the OPEN
source
CIRCUIT voltageVab

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir co n tro llin g
v a ria b les
PART A

i 0 a

vOC
_

Vab
_

Second circuit problem

2. Determine the Remove part B and
SHORT CIRCUIT compute the SHORT
CIRCUIT currentI ab
current

vTH vOC , RTH

vOC

i SC

L IN E A R C IR C U IT
M a y co n ta in
in d ep en d en t a n d
d ep en d en t so u rces
w ith th e ir c o n tro llin g
va ria b les
PART A

i SC

v0
_

I ab
b

AN EXAMPLE OF DETERMINING THE THEVENIN EQUIVALENT

R

+
-

VTH

IS

Part B is irrelevant.
The voltage V_ab will be the value of the
Thevenin equivalent source.

a
2

I SC

T o P a rt B

What is an efficient technique to compute th

open circuit voltage?

VTH VTH VS

IS 0
R2
R1

Now for the short circuit current

Lets try source superposition
When the current source is open the
1
current through the short circuit Iis
SC

VS
R1

When the voltage source is set to zero,

2
I SC
the current through the short circuit
is

I SC

1
1
VS
( )VTH
IS
R1 R2
R1
VTH
IS

VS
IS
R1

To compute the Thevenin resistance we

use

RTH

VTH

I SC

VTH

NODE
ANALYSIS

R2
RR
VS 1 2 I S
R1 R2
R1 R2

R1 R2 VS

I S
R1 R2 R1

RTH

R1 R2
R1 R2

For this case the Thevenin resistance can be computed as

the resistance from a - b when all independent sources have been
set to zero

Determining the Thevenin Equivalent in Circuits with Only INDEPENDENT SOU

The Thevenin Equivalent Source is computed as the open loop voltage

The Thevenin Equivalent Resistance CAN BE COMPUTED by setting to zero all the source
and then determining the resistance seen from the terminals where the equivalent will b

a
V

+
-

IS

T o P art B

TH

b
Part B

RTH 3k

Since the evaluation of the Theve

equivalent can be very simple, we
can add it to our toolkit for the
solution of circuits!!

RTH 4k
Part B

5k

PART B

6V

VO

1k
(6V ) 1[V ]
1k 5k

EXAMPLE

COMPUTE Vo USING THEVENIN

In the region shown, one could use source

transformation twice and reduce that part t
a single source with a resistor.
... Or we can apply Thevenin Equivalence
to that part (viewed as Part A)

RTH 4k
The original circuit becomes...

VTH

And one can apply Thevenin one more time!

For open loop voltage use K

1
VTH

6
12[V ] 8[V ]
3 6

For the open loop voltage

the part outside the regio
is eliminated

1
TH

4k

1
VTH
4k * 2mA 8V 16V

...and we have a simple voltage divider!!

V0

8
16[V ] 8V
88

Or we can use Thevenin only once to get a voltage dividerFor the Thevenin resistance

RTH 8k

Part B
For the Thevenin voltage we have to analyze the
following circuit
METHOD??
Source superposition, for example
Contribution of the voltage source
1
VOC

6
12V 8V
3 6

Contribution of the current source

Thevenin Equivalent of Part A

2
VOC
(2k 2k ) * (2mA) 8V

Simple Voltage Divider

COMPUTE Vo USING NORTON

4k

I SC
RN RTH 3k
PART B
12V
I SC I N
2mA 2mA
3k

RN

IN

2k

RN
I N
RN 6 k

3
4
VO 2 (2) [V ]
9
3

VO 2kI 2k

COMPUTE Vo USING THEVENINPART B

VTH

RTH

+
-

VTH 12
2mA 0
3k
RTH 3k 4k

2k

VO

VTH

VO

2
4
(6V ) [V ]
27
3

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

Courtesy of M.J. Renardson

http://angelfire.com/ab3/mjramp/index.ht
ml

From PreAmp
(voltage )

To speakers
The simplest model for a
speaker is a resistance...
R
R

T H

TH

TH

+
-

TH

SPE A K E R
M O D EL

+
-

BASIC MODEL FOR THE

ANALYSIS OF POWER
TRANSFER

MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

R

+
-

TH

RL
2
VL2
RL
P

V
PL
; VL
VTH L
2 TH
RTH RL
RL
RTH RL

TH

VL

SO U R CE

For every choice of R_L we have a different power

How do we find the maximum value?

(L O A D )

Consider P_L as a function of R_L and find the

maximum of such function

RTH RL 2 RL RTH RL
dPL
2

VTH
4 3

dRL

R
TH
L

Set the derivative to zero to find extreme points.

For this case we need to set to zero the numerator

RTH RL 2 RL 0

*
RL

RTH

The maximum
power transfer
theorem

The value of the maximum

The load that maximizes the power transfer for a circu
power that can be
equal to the Thevenin equivalent resistance of the circ
transferred is

VTH2
PL (max)
4 RTH

ONLY IN THIS CASE WE NEED TO COMPUTE THE THEVENIN VOLT