MIT Lecture 7

Methods of proving theorems

Attique Ur Rehman
Lecturer BZU Lahore

[email protected]

Methods of proving theorems

Basic methods to prove the theorems:
Direct proof
p q is proved by showing that if p is true then q
follows
Indirect proof
Show the contrapositive q p. If q holds then p
follows
Proof by contradiction
Show that (p q) contradicts the assumptions
Proof by cases
Proofs of equivalence
p q is replaced with (p q) (q p)

Sometimes one method of proof does not go through as nicely

as the
other method. You may need to try more than one
approach.

Direct proof
p q is proved by showing that if p is true
then q follows
Example: Prove that If n is odd, then n2 is
odd.
Proof:
Assume the premise (hypothesis) is true, i.e.
suppose n is odd.
Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Direct proof
p q is proved by showing that if p is true
then q follows
Example: Prove that If n is odd, then n2 is
odd.
Proof:
Assume the hypothesis is true, i.e. suppose n is
odd.
Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1

Direct proof
p q is proved by showing that if p is true
then q follows
Example: Prove that If n is odd, then n2 is
odd.
Proof:
Assume the hypothesis is true, i.e. suppose n
is odd.
Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.
n2 = (2k + 1)2
= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
Therefore, n2 is odd.

Direct proof
Direct proof may not be the best option. It may become
hard to prove the conclusion follows from the premises.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume that 3n + 2 is odd,
thus 3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some k.
Then n = (2k 1)/3
?

Direct proof
Direct proof may not be the best option. It may become hard
to prove the conclusion follows from the premises.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume that 3n + 2 is odd,
thus 3n + 2 = 2k + 1 for some k.
Then n = (2k 1)/3
Not clear how to continue

Indirect proof
To show p q prove its contrapositive q
p
Why? p q and q p are
equivalent !!!
Assume q is true, show that p is true.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is
odd.
Proof:

Indirect proof
To show p q prove its contrapositive q p
Why? p q and q p are equivalent !!!
Assume q is true, show that p is true.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume n is even, that is n = 2k, where k is an
integer.

Indirect proof
To show p q prove its contrapositive q
p
Why? p q and q p are
equivalent !!!
Assume q is true, show that p is true.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume n is even, that is n = 2k, where k is
an integer.
Then:
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k+1)

Indirect proof
To show p q prove its contrapositive q
p
Why? p q and q p are equivalent
!!!
Assume q is true, show that p is true.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is
odd.
Proof:
Assume n is even, that is n = 2k, where k is
an integer.
Then:
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k+1)
Therefore 3n + 2 is even.

Indirect proof
To show p q prove its contrapositive q
p
Why? p q and q p are
equivalent !!!
Assume q is true, show that p is true.
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume n is even, that is n = 2k, where k is an
integer.
Then:
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k+1)
Therefore 3n + 2 is even.
We proved n is odd 3n + 2 is odd. This is
equivalent to 3n + 2 is odd n is odd.

Proof by contradiction
We want to prove p q
The only way to reject (or disprove) p q is to
show that (p
q ) can be true
However, if we manage to prove that either q or p is True
then we contradict (p q )
and subsequently p q must be true
Proof by contradiction. Show that the assumption (p q )
leads either to q or p which generates a contradiction.

Proof by contradiction
We want to prove p q
To reject p q show that (p q ) can be true
To reject (p q ) show that either q or p is True
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume 3n + 2 is odd and n is even, that is n = 2k, where k an
integer.

Proof by contradiction
We want to prove p q
To reject p q show that (p q ) can be true
To reject (p q ) show that either q or p is True
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume 3n + 2 is odd and n is even, that is n = 2k, where k an
integer.
Then:
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
Thus 3n + 2 is

Proof by contradiction
We want to prove p q
To reject p q show that (p q ) can be true
To reject (p q ) show that either q or p is True
Example: Prove If 3n + 2 is odd then n is odd.
Proof:
Assume 3n + 2 is odd and n is even, that is n = 2k, where k an
integer.
Then:
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
Thus 3n + 2 is even. This is a contradiction with the assumption
that 3n + 2 is odd. Therefore n is odd.

Vacuous proof
We want to show p q
Suppose p (the hypothesis) is always false
Then p q is always true.
Reason:
F q is always T, whether q is True or False
Example:
Let P(n) denotes if n > 1 then n2> n is TRUE.
Show that P(0).
Proof:
For n=0 the premise is False. Thus P(0) is always true.

Trivial proofs
We want to show p q
Suppose the conclusion q is always true
Then the implication p q is trivially true.
Reason:
p T is always T, whether p is True or False
Example:
Let P(n) is if a >=b then an >= bn
Show that P(0)
Proof:
a0 >=b0 is 1=1 trivially true.

Proof by cases
We want to show p1 p2 pn
q
Note that this is equivalent to
(p1 q) (p2 q) (pn q)
Why?

Proof by cases
We want to show p1 p2 pn q
Note that this is equivalent to
(p1 q) (p2 q) (pn q)
Why?
p1 p2 pn q <=>
(useful)
(p1 p2 pn) q <=>
(De
Morgan)
(p1 p2 pn) q <=>
(distributive)
(p1 q) (p2 q) (pn q) <=>
(useful)
(p1 q) (p2 q) (pn q)

Proof by cases
We want to show p1 p2 pn q
Equivalent to (p1 q) (p2 q) (pn
q)
Prove individual cases as before. All of them
must be true.
Example: Show that |x||y|=|xy|.
Proof:
4 cases:
x >=0, y>=0 xy >0 and |xy|=xy=|x||y|
x>= 0, y <0 xy < 0 and |xy|=-xy =x (-y)=|x||y|
x<0, y>=0 xy < 0 and |xy|=-xy =(-x) y=|x||y|
x<0, , y <0 xy >0 and |xy|= (-x)(-y) =|x||y|
All cases proved.

Proof of equivalences
We want to prove p q
Statements: p if and only if q.
Note that p q is equivalent to
Both implications must hold.

[ (p q ) (q p) ]

Example:
Integer is odd if and only if n^2 is odd.
Proof of (p q ) :
(p q ) If n is odd then n^2 is odd
we use a direct proof
Suppose n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1,where k is an integer.
n^2 = (2k + 1)^2 = 4k^2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k^2 + 2k) + 1
Therefore, n^2 is odd.

Proof of equivalences
We want to prove p q
Note that p q is equivalent to
Both implications must hold.

[ (p q ) (q p) ]

Integer is odd if and only if n^2 is odd.

Proof of (q p):
(q p): if n^2 is odd then n is odd
we use an indirect proof (p q) is a contrapositive
n is even that is n = 2k,
then n^2 = 4k^2= 2(2k^2)
Therefore n^2 is even. Done proving the contrapositive.
Since both (p q) and (q p) are true the equivalence is true

Proofs with quantifiers

Existence proof
Constructive
Find the example that shows the statement holds.
Nonconstructive
Show it holds for one example but we do not have the
witness example (typically ends with one example or other
example)
Counterexamples:
use to disprove a universal statements