SOME IMPORTANT

TERMS USED IN
RESEARCH WORK
Citation
A reference or listing of the key pieces of information
about a work that make it possible to identify and locate it
again. The elements of a citation normally include author,
title, place of publication, publisher, and date of
publication for a book; and journal title, volume, number,
issue, year, and page numbers for an article or for a
journal reference

SOME IMPORTANT
TERMS USED IN
RESEARCH WORK
Reference
What we quoted in the text consists of author name (Not
inverted), title and pages of sources it could be as
footnote, at the end of chapter or at the end of thesis.

SOME IMPORTANT
TERMS USED IN
RESEARCH WORK
Bibliography
In the context of academic research, a list of books or
references to sources cited, for further reading, usually
printed at the end of an article or in the back matter of a
book includes author name inverted, title, year, place of
publication, publisher.

SOME IMPORTANT
TERMS USED IN
RESEARCH WORK
Foot Note
Any note used to further explain a detail outside of the
main text. The term usually refers to notes at the bottom
of a page
OP Cited (for reference already given in list)
op. cited ref No 11, H.M Deitel

Ibid (for the same reference use )

Various Style Manuals

APA American Psychological

Association
MLA Modern Language Association
Chicago Style Chicago Manual of Style
Turabian Style based on Chicago Style
Harvard Referencing System
ASA American Sociological Association
CBE - Council of Biology Editors

What is the APA Style?

Publication Manual of the

American Psychological
Association
In 1929, the APA published
a manual with instructions
for authors on how to
prepare manuscripts for
publication in psychology
journals
Later used for theses, term
papers, etc.
Latest edition 5th in 2001
Widely used in the social
sciences

General Guidelines-1

Type or print on one side only of heavy,

white, unruled paper
Paper size: 8 X 11 inches
Double-space the entire paper(1.5 in 6th
edition).
Left justify text only
Leave a minimum one-inch margin on the
sides, top, and bottom of each page.
Number pages consecutively in the top
right corner, beginning with the title page
Just before the page number, use a
shortened form of the title as a header

General Guidelines-2

Font size 12-point

Times Roman or Courier are
acceptable typefaces.
Only black toner
Indent paragraphs 5-7 spaces
No more than 27 lines of text per
page

Headings
Five levels
CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING
Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading,
ending with a period, with following text starting on
the same line.

headings in 6th edition

1.

Centered, Boldface, Uppercase and lowercase

Heading

2. Flush left, Boldface, Uppercase and lowercase

Heading
3. Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.
4. Indented, boldface, italicized, lowercase
paragraph heading ending with a period.
5. Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
heading ending with a period.

Numbers in numerals

In general write as words all numbers from one to

nine and use numerals for all numbers 10 and
over.
Never begin a sentence with a numeral.
numbers in the abstract of a paper or in a
graphical display within a paper.(6th)
numbers that Immediately precede a unit of
measurement.( 6th)
numbers that represent statistical or
mathematical functions, fractional or decimal
quantities, percentages, ratios, and percentiles
and quartiles. For example :multiplied by 5 ( 6th)

Numbers in numerals
numbers that represent time, dates, ages,
scores and points on a scale, exact sums of
money, and numerals as numerals.
For example: 1 hr 34 min, at 12:30 a.m. 2year-olds, scored 4 on a 7-point scale (6th)
Exception: Use words for approximations of
numbers of days, months, and years(e.g.,
about three months ago).
numbers that denote a specific place in a
numbered series, parts of books and tables,
and each number in a list of four or more
numbers. For example Grade 8, row 5 (6th)

Seriation

Within paragraph or sentence: use lowercase letter in

parentheses
Participants considered (a) some alternative courses of
action, (b) the factors influencing the decision, and (c)
the probability of success.

Separate paragraphs: number each paragraph with an

arabic numeral, followed by a period
1. Begin with paragraph indent. Type second and
succeeding lines flush left.
2. The second item begins a new paragraph.

Types of figures

Graphs typically display the relationship between

two quantitative indices or between a continuous
quantitative variable (usually displayed as the y
axis) and groups of subjects displayed along the x
axis.
Charts generally display no quantitative
information such as the flow of subjects through a
process, for example, flow charts.
Maps generally display spatial information.
Drawings show information pictorially.
Photographs contain direct visual representations
of information.

Tables
Table 2
( change in 6th table no. in arabic like table X )
Reading Level for First Through Third Graders Children
Grade

Number of Viewing
Hours

First Grade

5 - 10 hours

2.8

Second Grade

16 - 20 hours

2.6

Third Grade

11 - 15 hours

4.2

Reading Level

Note. Reading level refers to average reading level for students

in that year and month of school.

Figures
Figure 2. Pie chart of total sales
Other 3%

IT Services 14%

Imaging and
Printing Systems
41%

Computing
Systems 42%

Citations

In-text citation
also called
Parenthetical citation
Author-date reference

Reference list

Information Needed for

Citation

Author or Authoring Body

Date of publication
Title of the work
Publisher of the work & place of publication
Title of the Source, if work is part of
something else, i.e.. journal, encyclopedia,
website
Location information within the Source, i.e..
Volume, issue #, page or paragraph
numbers
Retrieval date, if electronic format

Authors Name in Sentence

Schwepps (1998) states that the
solution sat dormant for several
months before any of the
employees tested it (p. 743).

Authors Name in
Parentheses( even in
between)
When the solution had been sitting
for a number of months, the
employees tested for bacteria
(Schwepps, 1998).

Short Quotations

When fewer than 40 words

Put prose quotations in running text
Put quote marks around quoted material.
Same in 6th edition
Authors last name, publication year, and
page number(s) of quote must appear in
the text.( same in 6th edition)
In quotations less than 40 words the full
stop is placed after the page (in 6th
edition)

Example Short
Quotations
Caruth (1996) states that a traumatic
response frequently entails a delayed,
uncontrolled repetitive appearance of
hallucinations and other intrusive
phenomena (p. 11).
A traumatic response frequently entails a
delayed, uncontrolled repetitive
appearance of hallucinations and other
intrusive phenomena (Caruth, 1996, p.
11).

Long Quotations

When 40 words or more

In block form Indent 5-7 spaces and omit the
quotation marks. If the quotation has internal
paragraphs, indent the internal paragraphs a
further 5-7 spaces
Do not use quotation marks
Double space the block quote
Cite the source after the end punctuation of the
quote
The font size in a block quotation should be
changed to size 10, and it should be singlespaced.

Long Quotation

Material that was in double quotation marks in the

original source should be placed within double
quotation marks in a block quotation.
To start a new paragraph within the quotation, indent
the first line of the new paragraph, one tab key from
the margin of the quotation.
To emphasize a word or words in a quotation italicize
the word(s). Immediately after the italicized word(s)
insert within brackets the words [italics added].
Material in the original source that was in double
quotation marks should be placed within single
quotation marks in the (short) quotation.

Long Quotations

Use three ellipses points () within a sentence to

indicate that you have omitted material from the
original source. Use four ellipses points (.) to
indicate omission between sentences. The first point
indicates the period at the end of the first sentence
quoted, and the three ellipsis points follow.

Direct quotations must mention the exact spelling,

punctuation, and wordings of the original source
even if the source is incorrect. If any incorrect
spelling, punctuation or grammar in the source
might confuse the reader, insert the word sic
italicized and within brackets [sic], immediately after
the error in the quotation.

Example Long
Quotations
Meile (1993) found the following:
The placebo effect, which had been verified in
previous studies, disappeared when behaviors were
studied in this manner. Furthermore, the behaviors
were never exhibited again, even when real drugs
were administered. Earlier studies were clearly
premature in attributing the results to a placebo
effect. (p. 276)

Example Long
Quotations
Rubin and Thompson (1994) stated that,
Some teachers also treat their students as if
they were a tabula rasa [italics added], or blank
slate, on which the new language information
will be inscribed.
The fact is that all of us possess a wealth of
knowledge that can be brought to bear in
learning a foreign language. Following the
principle of going from the known to the
unknown, if you wisely use what you know, you
can make the process of learning a foreign
language more efficient and rewarding. (p.63)

Example Long
Quotations
She stated, The placebo effect disappeared when
behaviors were studied in this manner (Miele, 1993,
p.276), but she did not clarify which behaviors were
studied.

Miele (1993) found the following:

The placebo effect, which had been verified in previous
studies, disappeared when behaviors were studied in this
manner. Furthermore, the behaviors were never exhibited
again [italics added], even when reel [sic] drugs were
administered. Earlier studies (e.g., Abdullah, 1984; Fox, 1979)
were clearly premature in attributing the results to a placebo
effect. (p. 276)

Secondary Reference
In 1947 the World Health
Organization proposed the following
definition of health. Health is a
state of complete physical, mental,
and social well-being and not merely
the absence of disease and infirmity
(World Health Organization, as cited
in Potter & Perry, 2001, p. 3).

Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Authors

2 authors cite both names separated

by &
Example:
(Kosik & Martin, 1999, p. 127)
3-5 authors cite all authors first time;
after first time, use et al.
Example:
(Wilson et al., 2000)
6 or more authors cite first authors
name and et al.
Example:
(Perez et al., 1992)

Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Citations

Multiple sources from same author

chronological order, separated by
comma Example:
(Burke, 1998, 1999, in press)
Within same year:
Example:
(Burke, 1998a, 1998b, 1999, in
press)

Parenthetical Citations
Multiple Citations

Multiple sources separated by semicolon,

alphabetical order
Example:
(Burke, 1998; Perez, 1992; Wilhite, 2001)
Personal communication (not included in references)
Example:
(T.K. Lutes, personal communication,
September 19, 2001)

Handling Parenthetical
Citations
Sometimes additional information is necessary . .
.
More than one author with the same last name
(H. James, 1878); (W. James, 1880)
Two or more works in the same parentheses
(Caruth, 1996; Fussell, 1975; Showalter, 1997)
Specific part of a source
(Jones, 1995, chap. 2)
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
2005, p. 10)

Handling Parenthetical
Citations

If the source has no known author,

then use an abbreviated version of
the title:
Full Title: California Cigarette Tax
Deters Smokers
Citation: (California, 1999)

Sample Parenthetical
Citations
Recently, the history of warfare has been significantly
revised by Higonnet et al (1987), Marcus (1989), and Raitt
and Tate (1997) to include womens personal and cultural
responses to battle and its resultant traumatic effects.
Feminist researchers now concur that It is no longer true
to claim that women's responses to the war have been
ignored (Raitt & Tate, p. 2). Though these studies focus
solely on women's experiences, they err by collectively
perpetuating the masculine-centered impressions
originating in Fussell (1975) and Bergonzi (1996).
However, Tylee (1990) further criticizes Fussell,
arguing that his study treated memory and culture as if
they belonged to a sphere beyond the existence of
individuals or the control of institutions (p. 6).

Reference List

Place the list of references cited at the end

of the paper
Start references on a new page
Begin each entry flush with the left margin
Indent subsequent lines five to seven
spaces (hanging indent)
Double space both within and between
entries
Italicize the title of books, magazines, etc.

Abbreviations ( from 6th edition)

Abbreviation

ed.

Rev. ed.

2nd ed.

Ed. (Eds.)

Trans.

n.d.

p. (pp.)

Vol.

Vols.

No.

Pt.

Tech. Rep.

Suppl.

Book or publication part

edition

Revised edition

second edition

Editor (Editors)

Translator(s)

no date

page (pages)

Volume (as in Vol. 4)

Volumes (as in Vols. 1-4)

Number

Part

Technical Report

Supplement

Capitalization in Reference
List

Capitalize only the first word of the

title, the first word after a colon or
dash, and proper nouns in titles of
books, articles, etc.
Capitalize all major words and all
words of four letters or more in
periodical titles.

Reference List Order

Arrange sources alphabetically beginning with

authors last name
If author has more than one source, arrange
entries by year, earliest first
When an author appears both as a sole author
and, in another citation as the first author of a
group, list the one author entries first
If no author given, begin entry with the title
and alphabetize without counting a, an, or the
Do not underline, italicize or use quote marks
for titles used instead of an author name

Example Reference List

Order

Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Control

Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of
Kumpfer, K. L. (1999). Factors
Kumpfer, K. L. (2002). Prevention
Kumpfer, K. L., Alvarado, R., Smith, P.,

Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Preventions

Group Author
American Psychological Association.
(2001). Publication manual of the
American Psychological
Association (5th ed.). Washington,
DC: Author.

multiple-author entries
beginning with the same
surname
One-author
(editionentries
6th) precede multipleauthor entries beginning with the
same surname
even if the multiple-author work
was publIshed earlier :
Alleyne, R. L. (2001).
Alleyne, R. L., & Evans, A. J. (1999)

Book with one author

Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the mind.
Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press.

Book - Electronic (edition 6th)

Will, R. J. (2002). The characteristic
symphony in the age of Haydn and
Beethoven [Ebrary Reader version].
Retrieved from Ebrary database.
N.B. If you are submitting work to a publisher
and there is no DOI, you are now required to
give the URL of the Ebook's homepage (in this
example, http://www.ebrary.com/corp/).
For undergraduate students, give the name of
the database, as in the example above (do not
include the URL).

Book with two authors

Struck, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (1979).
The elements of style (3rd ed.).
New York: Macmillan.

Book with six or more

authors
Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I.
N.,
Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua,
L.,
et al. (2000). An experimental
evaluation of

Book with no author

Merriam-Webster's collegiate
dictionary
(10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA:
Merriam-Webster.

Book with editors

Allison, M. T., & Schneider, I. E. (Eds.).
(2000). Diversity and the
recreation
profession: Organizational
perspectives. State College, PA:
Venture.

Chapter in Book
Stern, J. A., & Dunham, D. N. (1990).
The ocular system. In J. T.
Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.),
Principles of psychophysiology:
Physical, social, and inferential
elements (pp. 513-553). Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.

Multivolume book
Koch, S. (Ed.). (1959-1963).
Psychology: A study of science
(Vols. 1-6). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Journals with Continuous

Pagination
Bekerian, D. A. (1993). In search of
the
typical eyewitness. American
Psychologist, 48, 574-576.

Journals with Pagination by Issue

Sellard, S., & Mills, M. E. (1995).
Administrative issues for use
of
nurse practitioners. Journal of
Nursing Administration, 25(5),
64-70.

Article in press
Jones, R. (in press). The new
healthcare
lexicon. Journal of Health.

Abstract
Misumi, J., & Fumita, M. (1982). Effects
of PM organizational development in
supermarket organization. Japanese
Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, 21, 93-111. [Abstract]
Psychological Abstracts, 1982, 68,
Abstract No. 11474

Thesis (except from the US) print

version
Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the Internet
to enhance
teaching at the University of
(edition
6th)
Waikato (Unpublished master's thesis).
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New
Zealand.
N.B. For PhD use: Unpublished
doctoral dissertation after the title
or Unpublished master's thesis for
Master's degree (Publication
Manual, p. 207).

Thesis (except from the US) electronic version (edition 6th)

Dewstow, R. A. (2006). Using the
Internet to enhance teaching at
the University of Waikato (Master's
thesis, The University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand). Retrieved
from
http://hdl.handle.net/10289/2241

Thesis from US -electronic

version
6th) on almost
Rose, S. L.(edition
(2006). Essays
common value auctions (Doctoral
dissertation, Ohio State
University). Retrieved from
http://www.ohiolink.edu/etd

N.B. For further examples, see the Publication Manual,

pp.207-208.

Online discussion
(edition D.
6th)
Chalmers,
(2000, November 17).

Seeing with sound [Online forum

comment]. Retrieved from
http://groups.google.com/group/sci
.psychology.consciousness/

N.B. Do not italicise titles of

unpublished works.

Blog post (edition 6th)

Wadard. (2009, June 15). Australia's
climate bill may be scuttled [Web
log message]. Retrieved from
http://globalwarmingwatch.blogspo
t.com/
N.B.Do not italicise titles of
unpublished works.

Video blog post (edition 6th)

Leelefever. (2007, May 29). Wiki in
plain English [Video file]. Retrieved
from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=-dnL00TdmLY

Magazine
Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29).
Seeing the mind. Science, 262,
673-674.
Full date is used for weekly magazines;
month and year for monthly magazines.

Newspaper
Schwartz, J. (1993, September 30).
Obesity affects economic,
social
status. The Washington Post,
pp.
A1, A4.

Encyclopedia
Blaser, L. (1996). Relativity . In Gale
encyclopedia of science (Vol. 15,
pp. 82-86). New York, Gale
Encyclopedia Co.

Thesis
Ho, M. (2000). Coping strategies of
counselling professionals.
Unpublished masters thesis,
Nanyang Technological
University,
Singapore.

Videotape
National Institute on Mental Health.
(1980).
Drug abuse [videotape].
Bethesda:
Author.

Electronic sources
Velmans, M. (1999). When perception
becomes conscious. British
Journal of Psychology, 90, 543566. Retrieved May 25, 2001,
from the Expanded Academic
ASAP database.

Web page
Green, C. (2000, April 16). History &
philosophy of psychology web
resources. Retrieved May 22, 2001,
from http://www.yorku.ca/dept.htm
it is no longer necessary to include the date of
retrieval, unless webpage content is likely to
be updated (e.g. Wiki).(NEW)

Professional paper from

Internet
Jacob, B. & Shoemaker, N. (n.d.).
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:
An interpersonal tool for system
administrators. Retrieved October
19, 2003 from:
http://www.mindspring.com/~nanc
yshoemaker/nes/mbti/mbtipaper.p
df

Stand-Alone Web Document

with no author or date
GVUs 8th WWW user survey. (n.d.).
Retrieved January 17, 2003, from
http://www.ccgatech.edu/gvu

Sample Reference List

References
Calvillo, D. (1999). The theoretical development of aggression. Retrieved
August

21, 2002 from: http://www.csubak.edu/~1vega/dustin2.html

Flory, R. K. (1969a). Attack behavior as a function of minimum inter-food

interval. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior. 12, 825-828.
Flory, R. K. (1969b). Attack behavior in a multiple fixed-ratio schedule of
reinforcement. Psychonomic Science, 16, 383-386.
Flory, R. K. & Everist, H.D. (1977). The effect of a response requirement on
schedule-

induced aggression. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society 9,

383-386.
Gentry, W. D. (1968). Fixed-ratio schedule-induced aggression. Journal of
the

Experimental Analysis of Behavior 11, 813-817.

Formatting for Theses

Preliminary pages
Bibliography instead of Reference
List
Left-hand margin 1 inch
Single spacing in tables, long
quotations, within references
Figure caption is typed below

For More Information

APA Manual Website:
www.apastyle.org
http://www.waikato.ac.nz/library/le
arning/g_apaguide.shtml