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Seismic Refraction For Class 2

This document provides an overview of seismic refraction methods. It discusses key concepts like wave propagation, data acquisition and processing, and interpretation techniques. It covers determining layer velocities from travel time slopes, special cases like dipping layers, and interpretation methods such as the plus-minus method and generalized reciprocal method. Applications discussed include determining depth to bedrock, water tables, and the Moho discontinuity.

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Adides Gidson Simanjuntak
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222 views

Seismic Refraction For Class 2

This document provides an overview of seismic refraction methods. It discusses key concepts like wave propagation, data acquisition and processing, and interpretation techniques. It covers determining layer velocities from travel time slopes, special cases like dipping layers, and interpretation methods such as the plus-minus method and generalized reciprocal method. Applications discussed include determining depth to bedrock, water tables, and the Moho discontinuity.

Uploaded by

Adides Gidson Simanjuntak
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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PSTE 4223 Methodes

sismiques

Part I: Seismic Refraction


Anne Obermann

2 x 3h

Overview
Introduction historical outline
Chapter 1: Fundamental concepts
Chapter 2: Data acquisition and material
Chapter 3: Data processing and

interpretation

Wave Propagation according to Huygens Principle

Summary
v1 determined from the slope of

the direct arrival (straight line


passing through the origin)
v2 determined from the slope of

the head wave (straight line first


arrival beyond the critical
distance)
Layer thickness h1 determined

from the intercept time of the


head wave (already knowing v1
and v2)

h
1

Complete analysis process

Special cases

Dipping Interfaces

What if the critically refracted interface is not horizontal?

A dipping interface produces a

pattern that looks just like a


horizontal interface!
Velocities are called apparent
velocities
What do we do?

Shoot lines forward and reversed

Beware: the calculated


thicknesses will be
perpendicular to the
interface, not vertical

In this case, velocity of lower layer is


underestimated underestimated

Dipping Interfaces

So :

Vf: apparent velocity for all


trajectories downwards
Vr: apparent velocity for all
trajectories upwards

These apparent velocities are


given by:

Real velocity of the second


layer:

Dipping Interfaces
You can also write:

If the dip is small (<<5%), you can


take the average slope, as
is
close to 1

The perpendicular distances to the


interface are calculated from the
intercept times.

Dipping Interfaces
Example, V1=2500 m/s, V2=4500 m/s

A very small inclination of the interface is enough to cause a large


difference between apparent and real velocity!!!

Step discontinuity
Offsets are detected as discontinuities in the t-x diagram
-Offset because the interface is deeper and DE receives no refracted
rays.
Geological example:
-backfilled quarry
-normal fault

dt
When the size of the step
discontinuity is small with
respect to the depth of the
refractor, the following
equation can be used:
dz

Unfavourable geological settings with


refraction seismics
Different interpretation
methods are available

Seisimic line

Seisimic line

Red ray pathes are always hidden by shorter


black rays

Before starting the interpretation, inspect the


traveltime-distance graphs
As a check on quality of data being acquired
In order to decide which interpretational method to use:

- simple solutions for planar layers and for a dipping refractor


- more sophisticated analysis for the case of an irregular interface

Travel time anomalies


i)

Isolated spurious travel time of a first arrival, due to a


mispick of the first arrival or a mis-plot of the correct travel
time value

ii )

Changes in velocity or thickness in the near-surface region

iii )

Changes in surface topography

iv )

Zones of different velocity within the intermediate depth


range

v)

Localised topographic features on an otherwise planar


refractor

Travel time anomalies and their


respective causes
A) Bump and cusp in
layer 1
B) Lens with
anomalous
velocity in layer 2
C) Cusp and bump
at the interface
between layers 2
and 3
D) Vertical, but
narrow zone with
anomalous
velocity within
layer 3

Interpretation methods
Several different interpretational methods have been published, falling
into two approaches:
Delay time
Wavefront construction

Two methods emerge as most commonly used:


-

Plus-minus method (Hagedoorn, 1959)

Generalised Reciprocal method GRM (Palmer, 1980)

Phantom arrivals
Undulating interfaces
Impossible to extrapolate the head
wave arrival time curve back to the
intercept
How do we determine layer
thickness beneath the shot, S?

??

Phantom arrivals
1. Shoot a long-offset shot, SL
2. The head wave traveltime curves
for both shots will be parallel, offset
by time T
3. Subtract T from the SL arrivals to
generate fictitious 2nd layer arrivals
close to S the phantom arrivals
4. The intercept point at S can then
be determined: Ti
5. Use the usual formula to
determine perpendicular layer
thickness beneath S

Phantom arrivals
Move offset shot to end shot to determine which part corresponds to
bedrock arrivals

Intercept time 2

Advantage:
remove the
necessity to
extrapolate the
travel time graph
from beyond the
crossover point
back to the zerooffset point.

Plus minus-method
The method uses intercept times and delay times in the calculation of
the depth to the refractor below any geophone location.

The delay time ( ) is the difference in time between:


1) T(SG) along SABG
2) T(PQ)
The total delay time is effectively the sum of the shot-point delay
time
and the geophone delay time

Plus minusmethod

Assumptions to use
the method:
-Present layers are
homogeneous
-Large velocity
contrast between the
layers
-Angle of dip of the
refractor is less than
10 degrees

Plus minus Method Principle


A

G
B
C

E
F

Time CDE= Time ABCD + Time DEFG Time


ABCEFG
Total time

Plus minus method

Plus minus method


Consider the model with two layers and an
undulating interface. The refraction profile is
reversed with two shots (S1 and S2) fired into
each detector (D).
Consider the following three travel times:
(a) The reciprocal time is the time from S1 to S2
(b) Forward shot into the detector
(c) Reverse shot into the detector

Our goal is to find v2 and the delay time at the detector, D. From the
delay time, D , we can find the depth of the interface.

Plus minus method


(a) The reciprocal time is the time from S1 to S2
(b) Forward shot into the detector
(c) Reverse shot into the detector

Plus minus method


(a) The reciprocal time is the time from S1 to S2
(b) Forward shot into the detector
(c) Reverse shot into the detector

Plus minus method


Calculate the depth to the refractor beneath any geophone (z)
from the delay time

i being the critical angle

a) Composite travel-time distance


graph
b)
graph
c) Calculated depth to a refractor

Provides a possibility to examine


lateral velocity variations (lateral
resolution equal to the geophone
separation)

Plus minus method

Exercice

Generalized reciprocal method (1979)

The plus-minus method assumes a linear interface between points


where the ray leaves the interface. A more powerful technique is the
Generalized reciprocal method in which pairs of rays are
chosen that leave the interface at the same location.
-> further development of the plus minus method

Generalized Reciprocal Method


-GRM requires more receivers than Plus-Minus
-multiple estimates of the depth are made below each point, using
different separations between X and Y.
-geophysicist must select the optimal distance (XY) (most linear T- and the most
detail in a T+ profile)
XY = Optimal distance

Generalized reciprocal method

Generalized reciprocal method


An Introduction to
Applied and
Environmental
Geophysics by John M.
Reynolds

Generalized reciprocal method

Fan Shooting
Discontinuous targets can be mapped using radial transects: called Fan
Shooting
A form of seismic tomography

Fan Shooting
Technique first used in the 1920s in the search for salt domes. The
higher velocity of the salt causes earlier arrivals for signals that travel
though the salt.

Eve and Keys, Applied Geophysics, 1928

Travel time Tomography


Seismic tomography (tomo=slice+graph=picture) refers to the
derivation of the velocity structure of earth from seismic waves.
There are at two main types of seismic data to be inverted:
traveltime data and waveform data.
Traveltime tomography reconstructs earth velocity models with
several times lower resolution compared to waveform tomograms.
But on the other hand traveltime tomography is typically much
more robust, easier to implement, and computationally much
cheaper

Travel time Tomography


Traveltime tomography is the procedure for reconstructing the earth's velocity
model from picked traveltimes.
This is an inverse problem : convert observed measurements into a model that is
capable of explaining them.

d= Gm

-1

m=G d

Travel time Tomography

Ray
tracing

Example

Velocity tomogram on left and reflection image


obtained from CDP data on right

Application
s

Shallow applications of seismic refraction


1. Depth to bedrock
velocity of bedrock
greater than
unconsolidated
layer
in this example, a
shot point was
located every 30 m
depth to bedrock
increases with x

Shallow applications of seismic refraction


1. Depth to bedrock (example from Northern
Alberta)
Seismic refraction was used to determine depth to bedrock at the location
where a pipeline was planned to cross a creek.

Note that the direct wave is only the first arrival at the first 2 geophones.
This is because of a very high velocity contrast between the upper and lower
layers.

Shallow applications of seismic refraction


1. Depth to bedrock (example from Northern
Alberta)
The model below was derived from the seismic data using the general
reciprocal method.

Shallow applications of seismic refraction


2. Locating a water
table

Shallow applications of seismic refraction


3. Determine
rippability

Depth of Moho from seismic refraction

the head wave that travels in the


upper mantle is called Pn
reflection from the Moho is called
PmP
reduced travel time is sometimes
plotted on the vertical axis.
t' = t x/vred
where vred is the reduction velocity.
This has the effect of making
arrivals with v=vred plot horizontally
on a t-x plot.
in the figure on the left, the
crustal P-wave velocity was used as
the reduction velocity.

Tectonic studies of the continental


lithosphere with seismic refraction

Gorman, A.R. et al, Deep probe: imaging the roots of western North
America, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 39, 375-398, 2002.

Explosive shots up to 2400 kg with seismic recorders


deployed on a profile from 60N to 43N

Tectonic studies of the continental


lithosphere with seismic refraction

The figure above shows ray tracing used to model the data. Measures
the variation in Moho depth and crustal structure. Note that with a
reduction velocity of 8 km/s, Pn plots as a horizontal line, while the slower
Pg has a positive slope.

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