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Bio 2

B2

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caezst
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Seed-Dispersed Plants

Chapter 31

Viridiplantae = Green Plants


Green plants

Streptophyta

Land plants
Bryophytes

Red Algae

Green algae

Green algae

Chlorophytes

Charophytes

Liverworts

Tracheophytes

Mosses

Hornworts

Lycophytes

Euphyllophytes
Ferns + Allies

Seed plants
Gymnosperms

Angiosperms

Ancestral alga

Life cycle in plants:


Algae:
Haplodiplontic (Ulva) or
Haplontic (unicellular chlorophytes and
charophytes)

Mosses (Bryophytes)
Haplodiplontic: Large gametophyte. In most
recent groups sporophyte increases in size

Ferns and Angiosperms:


Haplodiplontic: ALWAYS small
gametophytes

The Evolution of Seed Plants


Success attributed to evolution of seed
Protects and provides food for embryo
Allows the clock to be stopped to survive harsh periods before
germinating
Later development of fruits enhanced dispersal

Seed plants produce 2 kinds of


gametophytes:
1. Male gametophytes (n, haploid)
Pollen grains (have inside two or four cells)
developed from haploid microspores after meiosis
Dispersed by wind or a pollinator
No need for water to achieve fertilization
It develops from haploid microspore after meiosis

Microspore mother cell (2n) MEIOSIS


Microspore (n) MITOSIS Pollen
grain (= Male gametophyte)

Angiosperm pollen

Pine pollen

Seed plants produce 2 kinds of gametophytes


2. Female gametophyte
Called megametophyte (Gymnosperms) or
Called embryo sac (Angiosperms)
It has several cells, all are haploid (n)
In Angiosperms one cell has two

nuclei (n + n)

It develops from haploid megaspores after meiosis:


Megaspore mother cell (2n) MEIOSIS Megaspore (n)
MITOSIS Embryo sac or megatophyte (= Female
gametophyte)

Ovule is mostly made of diploid cells except for the


few cells that are haploid and form the gametophyte

megametophyte

(2n)
(n)
(n)
(2n)

Megametophyte

(2n)
(2n)
(n)
or polar
nucleus
(n) (n + n)
(n)
(2n)

Embryo sac

(2n)

10

Two main groups of Seed Plants

Angiosperms

Plants with naked seeds


All lack flowers and fruits of
angiosperms
All have ovule exposed on
a scale

Gymnosperms

Gymnosperms

Ferns and Allies

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or


display.

11

1.- Gymnosperms - Conifers


(phylum Coniferophyta)
Most familiar gymnosperm phylum
Pines, spruces, firs, cedars, and others
Coastal redwood Tallest living vascular plant
Bristlecone pine Oldest living tree

12

The generative cell of pollen


divides through mitosis:
2 cells:
One cell called stalk
cell is sterile
Second cell divides
and result into two
sperm cells
Scale
Ovule with
megaspore
mother cell

micropyle
Haploid
phase
Diploid
phase

Two Arquegonia
with one egg cell
each. Only one
sperm cell will
fertilize the egg cell.
If both achegonia
are fertilized only
one will survive

13

Pine reproduction highlights


Female cones usually take 2 or more seasons to mature
During the first spring, pollen grains drift down between open
scales
Pollen grains drawn down into micropyle
Scales and micropyle close
A year later, female gametophyte matures (two arquegonia
cells (n) + many haploid cells)
Pollen tube is digesting its way through
Mature male gametophyte has 2 sperm cells
15 months after pollination, pollen tube reaches archegonium
and discharges contents
One sperm unites with egg = zygote
Other sperm degenerates
14

Angiosperms

Flowering plants
Carpel, a modified leaf that covers seeds,
develops into fruit
15

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Ovules
(seeds)

Carpel
(fruit)

Ovules
Cross section

Modified leaf
with ovules

Folding of leaf
protects ovules

Fusion of
leaf margins
(bottom right): Goodshoot/Alamy RF

16

Flower morphology
Modified stems bearing modified
leaves
Flower primordium (cells at the
shoot apical meristem) develops
into a bud at the end of a stalk
called the pedicel
Pedicel expands at the tip to form
a receptacle, to which other parts
attach
Flower parts are organized in
circles called whorls

17

Flower
whorls

Outermost whorl sepals


Second whorl petals
Third whorl stamens (androecium)
Pollen is the male gametophyte
Each stamen has a pollen-bearing anther and a filament (stalk)
Innermost whorl gynoecium
Consists of one or more carpels
Houses the female gametophyte inside the ovule. The ovule is not a
carpel. The ovule IS NOT a gametophyte. It has 2n and n cells

18

Carpels
Carpel has 3 major regions
Ovary swollen base containing ovules
Later develops into a fruit

Stigma tip where pollen lands


Style neck or stalk

19

Nucellus: central portion of


ovule inside integuments
Megaspore
mother cell
Integuments
Micropyle
Stalk of ovule (funiculus)

Single megaspore mother cell in ovule


undergoes meiosis
Produces 4 megaspores (n)
3 disappear
1 remain
The remaining megaspore divides to
produce 8 haploid nuclei:
They will later form 7 cells
Integuments (2n, and identical to
mother tissue) become seed coat
Form micropyle
20

Embryo sac = female


gametophyte
8 nuclei in 7 cells
Two nuclei migrates toward
center and inside one cell
Functions as polar
nuclei
Egg
1 cell in group closest to
micropyle (egg cell)
Other 2 are synergids
Antipodals
3 cells at other end no
function
21

Pollen production occurs in the anthers


Less complex than female gametophyte
formation
Diploid microspore mother cells (also
known as pollen mother cells) undergo
meiosis to produce four haploid
microspores
They undergo mitosis resulting in pollen
grains. They have
One vegetative or tube cell
One generative cell nucleus
Meiosis

Pollen
grain

22

Pollination
Mechanical transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
Pollen grains develop a pollen tube from the vegetative
cell that is guided to the embryo sac
One of the two cells that form the pollen grain is called
generative cell
This generative cell divides to produce two sperm cells
No flagella on sperm

23

Double fertilization
One sperm cell unites with egg to form the diploid zygote
New sporophyte
Other sperm unites with the two polar nuclei to form the triploid endosperm
Provides nutrients to embryo
Seed may remain dormant for many years
Germinate when conditions are favorable

24

25

Seeds

Following fertilization in seed plants the


embryo starts to develop but

Suddenly embryo development (once


meristems and cotyledons are formed) stops,
AND then
The seed starts to develop:
1) Integuments develop into a relatively impermeable
seed coat
2) Food is stored inside the seed

26

Once a seed coat forms, most of the


embryos metabolic activities cease
Germination cannot take place until water
and oxygen reach the embryo
Seeds of some plants have been known to
remain viable for thousands of years

27

Specific adaptations ensure that seeds will


germinate only under appropriate
conditions
Some seeds lie within tough cones that do not
open until exposed to fire
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a.

b.
a: Ed Reschke; b: David Sieren/Visuals Unlimited

28

Fruits

Most simply defined as mature


parts of the ovaries (carpels) that
surround the seed
During seed formation, the flower
ovary begins to develop into fruit
It is possible for fruits to develop
without seed development
Cultivated Bananas are propagated
asexually
They have fruits but no seeds
Wild bananas have seeds

29

30

The ovary wall is


termed the
pericarp

Stigma

3 layers:
Style

1. Exocarp
2. Mesocarp
3. Endocarp

Their fate
determines the
fruit type

Pericarp
(overy wall)
Exocarp
Mesocarp
Endocarp

Ovary

Developing
seed coat
Embryo

Endosperm (3n)
Carpel
(developing
fruit)

31

Fruits contain 3
genotypes in 1
package
Fruits and seed coat
from prior sporophyte
generation
Remnants of
gametophyte
generation that
produced the egg
Embryo represents
next sporophyte
generation

Stigma

Style

Pericarp
(overy wall)
Exocarp
Mesocarp
Endocarp

Ovary

Part of
ovary
developing
into seed

Developing
seed coat
Embryo

Endosperm (3n)

prior sporophyte generation


degenerating gametophyte generation
next sporophyte generation

Carpel
(developing
fruit)

32

True Berries

The entire pericarp is


fleshy, although there
may be a thin skin.
Berries have multiple
seeds in either one or
more ovaries. The
tomato flower had four
carpels that fused.
Each carpel contains
multiple ovules that
develop into seeds.

Outer pericarp
Fused
carpels

Seed

Legumes

Split along two carpel edges (sutures) with seeds


attached to edges; peas, beans. Unlike fleshy
fruits, the three tissue layers of the ovary do not
thicken extensively. The entire pericarp is dry
at maturity.
Pericarp

Seed

Stigma

Style

33

Drupes

Pericarp
Single seed
Exocarp (skin)
enclosed
Mesocarp
in a hard pit;
Endocarp (pit)
peaches, plums,
cherries. Each
layer of the
pericarp has
a different structure
and function, with
Seed
the endocarp
forming the pit

34

Aggregate Fruits

Derived from many


Sepals of a
ovaries of a single
single flower
flower; strawberries,
blackberries.
Unlike tomato,
Ovary
these ovaries
Seed
are not fused
and covered
by a continuous
pericarp.

35

Multiple Fruits

Individual flowers form fruits


around a single stem. The fruits
fuse as seen with pineapple.

Main stem
Pericarp of
individual flower

36

Fruit Dispersal
Occurs through a wide array of methods
Ingestion and transportation by birds or other
vertebrates
Hitching a ride with hooked spines on birds
and mammals
Blowing in the wind
Floating and drifting on water

37

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

a.

b.
a: Edward S. Ross; b: Nigel Cattlin/Visuals Unlimited

38

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

c.

d.
c: Phil Ashley/Getty Images; d: John Kaprielian/Photo Researchers, Inc.

39

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