MODES OF REPRODUCTION

AND POLLINATION IN
VEGETABLE CROPS

Dr. P. Syam Sundar

Assistant Professor

Reddy
(Hort.)

Successful seed production of a crop

depends on a thorough knowledge of the
reproductive process of a particular crop.
The techniques of seed production must
take into account several features of
reproduction:
whether it is sexual, asexual, or a
combination of the two, the nature of
floral structures, the amount of pollen
transfer, the degree and means of selfincompatibility, and the effect of
inbreeding on vigour.

For most purposes the important

consideration
to
the
seed
producers is the extent of
crosspollination.
It is, therefore, necessary that
before engaging himself in seed
production, a producer must
acquaint
himself
with
the
following details of reproduction
in the particular crop.

Methods of Reproduction
A. Asexual/Vegetative Reproduction

Asexual reproduction does not involve

fusion of male and female gametes.
New plants are developed from vegetative
parts of the plant or may arise from
embryos that develop without fertilization.
In nature, a new plant develops from a
portion of the plant body.
This
may
occur
through
modified
underground and sub-aerial stems, bulbils,
cuttings and grafting.
As for example, taro, pointed gourd, potato
etc. are reproduced through asexual means.

B. Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction involves fusion of

male and female gametes to form a
zygote and the zygote develops into a
new plant.
The main difference between asexual and
sexual reproduction is that in asexual
reproduction one parent or sex is
concerned, while in sexual reproduction
both parental sexes are concerned.
All self- and cross-pollinated vegetables
are in this group.

Flower structure

Flowers are reproductive structures

They have been evolved to send
and receive pollen from one flower
to another
This is process of pollination
Flowers are developed from a
series of modified leaves
These leaves are arranged in a
rings (whorls)

Flower structure
Stigma
Style
Ovary

Petal

Anther
Filament

2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

Sepal

What is pollination?

The transfer of pollen

grains from the anther
to the stigma of a flower.
Pollen grains are immobile.
They cannot reach the
stigma by themselves.
An
external
agent
is
required for this.
It can be wind, water,
animal, gravity or growth
contact.

Pollination
Three types of pollination
Self-pollination

Cross-pollination

Often cross pollination

Overview of floral organs

Pollination

Most species of flowering plants are

hermaphrodite
Pollen from a flower could land on the
stigma of the same flower or another
flower on the same plant = self
pollination
Pollen transferred from the anther on
one flower to the stigma of another
flower on a different plant = cross
pollination

Why is pollination important?

Sexual reproduction is important for

evolution:
Sexual reproduction produces
variable offspring, creating diversity
and variation among populations
(shuffling of genes)
Sexual reproduction is advantageous
to an organism only if it happens with
someone other than itself!
Out breeding = good! (inbreeding =
bad)

Sexual reproduction

In animals: Its easy because you have

separate male and female individuals.
In flowering plants: Not so easy,
because most flowers have both male
and female parts in them, called
perfect flowers.
So flowering plants have evolved
special ways to insure out breeding/out
crossing and to prevent inbreeding.

Self-Pollinated Vegetable
Crops

Many
cultivated
vegetable
species
reproduce by self-pollination which have
hermaphrodite flowers.
But in most of these species, selfpollination is not exclusive and crosspollination may occur from 5 to 50%.
The degree of cross-pollination in selfpollinated species is affected by several
factors, namely variety, environmental
conditions like temperature, humidity,
wind,
location
and
abundance
of
pollinating insects.

However, the essential conditions for

self-pollination are :

Bisexuality : In this both male and female

reproductive organs are present in the same
flower. Without this condition self-pollination
is never possible.
Homogamy : This is the condition in which
the anthers and the stigmas of a bisexual
flower mature at the same time resulting in
self-pollination.
Cleistogamy : In this condition the bisexual
flowers never open and therefore, the selfpollination is only the way of pollination, e.
g. lettuce.

Geitonogamy

It is a type of pollination in
which pollen grains of
one flower are
transferred to the
stigma of another flower
belonging to either the
same plant or
genetically similar plant.
In geitonogamy, the flowers
often show modifications
similar to ones found in
xenogamy or cross
pollination.

Advantages of self
Pollination:
1. It maintains the
parental characters or
purity of the race
indefinitely.
2. Self pollination is
used to maintain pure
lines for hybridization
experiments.
3. The plant does not
need to produce large
number
of
pollen
grains.
4.
Flowers
do
not

Disadvantages
of
Self Pollination:
1.New
useful
characters
are
seldom introduced.
2. Vigour and vitality of
the
race
decreases
with
prolonged self
pollination.
3.
Immunity
to
diseases decreases.
4.
adaptability
to
changed environment
are reduced.

Partial list of self-pollinated

vegetables
Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)
Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)
Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa)
Peas (Pisum sativum)
Dwarf bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Cross-Pollinated Vegetable
Crops

The majority of the cultivated vegetable

species are cross-pollinated crops.
Crosspollination may occur both in
bisexual and unisexual flowers but it is the
rule in unisexual flowers.
Nature favours cross-pollination and the
agencies which help in bringing crosspollination in flowers are:
1) Air (Anaemophily), e.g. Amaranthus,
spinach, beet
2) Insects (Entomophily): All cucurbits, all
brassica, onion, carrot.

There are many reasons for which crosspollination takes place in the crops, some of
which are listed below:

Decliny: Decliny or unisexuality is a

condition in which the flowers either
staminate (male) or pistillate (female)
occur on the same plant or on different
plants, e. g. cucumber, watermelon,
pumpkin, squash, asparagus etc.
Dichogamy :The stamens and pistils of
hermaphrodite flowers may mature at
different times facilitating cross-pollination,
e.g. sweet corn, sugar beet etc.

Self-incompatibility : It refers to the

failure of pollen from a flower to fertilize
the same flower or other flowers on the
same plant, e.g. cabbage, cauliflower,
mustard, cole crops, root crops etc.
Male Sterility : Male sterility refers to
the absence of functional pollen grains
in otherwise hermaphrodite flowers.
Male sterility is not very common in
natural populations but is of great value
in production of hybrid seed.

Partial list of cross-pollinated

vegetable crops

Cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var. capitata)

Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)
Brussels sprouts (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera
Knol khol (Brassica oleracea var. caulorapa)
Carrot (Daucas carota)
Radish (Raphanus sativus)
Beet (Beta vulgaris)
Spinach (Spinacea oleracea)
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus)
Muskmelon (Cucumis melo)
Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
Pumpkin (Cucurbita moschata)
Squash (Cucurbita pepo)
Other cucurbits (bitter gourd, bottle gourd, ridge gourd, sponge gourd,
snake gourd, pointgourd, ash gourd etc)
Amaranths (Amaranthus tricolor, caudatus, spinosus)
Onion (Allium cepa)

Often Cross-Pollinated Vegetables

In some vegetable crops, crosspollination often exceeds 5% and

may reach up to 50%.
Such species are generally known
as often cross-pollinated species,
e.g. brinjal, okra, chilli, sweet
pepper.

Function of flower

To attract pollinators with colorful

petals, scent, nectar and pollen
Carpel/

Reproductive floral organs: female

Carpel or pistil female reproductive organs;

contains:
Stigma is where pollen sticks to
Style is the long tube that connects stigma to
ovary
Ovary enlarged structure at the base of
carpel/pistil where the ovules are located; it will
become the fruit.
Ovules contains female
carpel
gametophyte, becomes
or
the seed
pistil
Plants have style!
ovary

Reproductive floral organs: male

Stamen male floral organ, consists of:

Anther part of the stamen that produces pollen
Filament stalk-like structure that holds anther
Pollen immature male gametophyte

Non-reproductive floral organs

Petals whorl of flower organs that are

often brightly colored to attract pollinators
Corolla whorl of petals
in a flower

Sepals whorl of leaf-like organs

outside the corolla; help protect the
unopened flower bud.
Calyx whorl of sepals in a flower
Tepals when sepals and petals
look the same

Pollination and Fertilization

Pollen contains TWO nuclei: a sperm

nucleus and tube nucleus
Sperm nucleus is protected in
gametophyte tissue (pollen can travel
in the air)

Fertilisation
Pollen grain
Stigma
Style

Ovule
Embryo sac
Ovary

2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

Pollen
tube

Fertilisation

Embryo
sac
Polar
nuclei

2008 Paul Billiet ODWS

Egg
cell
Micropyl
e

Pollination and Fertilization

For pollen sperm to successfully

fertilize the egg, there must be
pollination: a method to get the
pollen from the male anther to the
stigma.
Pollen sticks to the stigma, starts
growing a pollen tube
Fertilization begins when
tube begins to grow
toward the egg

Double Fertilization

Double fertilization occurs: One sperm

nucleus (1n) fertilizes the egg, producing a
zygote (2n) which becomes the plant
embryo inside the seed
Another sperm nucleus fuses with the polar
nuclei, resulting in a triploid endosperm
(3n)
Endosperm is a source of food for the young
embryo.
Endosperm

Strategies to avoid selfpollination

Perfect flowers have both male and female

organs, so plants have strategies to avoid
self-pollination:
1. Timing male and female structures
mature at different times
2. Morphological structure of
male and female organs prevents
self-pollination (imperfect flower)
3. Biochemical chemical on
surface of pollen and stigma/style
that prevent pollen tube germination
on the same flower (incompatible)

How do plants get pollen

from one plant to another?

Because plants are rooted in the

ground, they must use different
strategies:
WIND POLLINATION:
Gymnosperms and some
flowering plants (grasses, trees)
use wind pollination.
Flowers are small, grouped together
Not a very efficient method
(too chancy and wasteful)

A word about pollen

The shape and form of pollen is related

to its method of pollination
Insect-pollinated species
have sticky of barbed
pollen grains
Wind-pollinated species
is lightweight, small and
smooth (corn pollen)

Palynology: the study of pollen

Palynology is useful in many fields:

Petroleum geology fossil pollen can
determine if a field will have oil-rich deposits
Archeology studying ancient pollen
samples, archeologists can determine
agricultural practices, diet, etc.
Anthropology uses of pollen in rituals
Criminology to determine the
whereabouts of an individual, examine
pollen clinging to clothes
Aerobiology to determine what plants
cause hay fever and allergic reactions in
landscaping

Animal pollinators: Bees

Bees are the most important group of

flower pollinators
They live on the nectar and feed
larvae, also eat the pollen.
Bees are guided by sight and
smell
See yellow and blue colors,
also ultraviolet light (not red)
Flowers have
honey guides
and bee landing
platforms..

Butterflies and moths

Also guided by sight and smell

Butterflies can see red and orange
flowers
Usually shaped as a long tube
because of insects
proboscis to get nectar
Moth-pollinated flowers
are usually white or pale,
with sweet, strong odor
for night pollination.

Flies and beetles

Flies like flowers that smell

like dung or rotten meat.
Lay their eggs there, but larvae
die due to lack of food.

Beetles pollinate flowers

that are dull in color, but
have very strong odor

Birds

Birds have a good sense

of color, they like yellow or
red flowers
But birds do not have a good
sense of smell, so birdpollinated
flowers usually have little
odor.
Flowers provide fluid nectar in
greater quantities than
insects
Hummingbird-pollinated
flowers

Mammals: bats and

mice

Bats pollinate at night,

so flowers are white

Mouse-pollinated flowers
are usually inconspicuous,
they open at night

Why do animals pollinate plants?

They get a REWARD: food! In

exchange for moving their pollen
to another flower
Nectar a sugary solution produced
in special flower glands called nectaries
Nectar concentration matches energy
requirements of the pollinator: bird- and beepollinated flowers have different sugar conc.
Pollen is high in protein, some bees and
beetles eat it.
Flowers can produce two kinds of pollen: a
normal and a sterile, but tasty, kind, for the

Getting the pollinators attention

Plants advertise their pollen and

nectar rewards with
Colors bees see blue, yellow, UV;
while birds see red. Bats dont see
well, so flowers are white.
Nectar or honey guides
a visual guide for pollinator
to locate the reward (pansy flower)
Aromas for insects, nectar.
Can also be carrion or dung smell

Plant Mimicry

Some plants take advantage of the

sex drive of certain insects
Certain orchids look like female
wasps, and even smell like them!
Males try to mate with them,
and in the process they
pollinate the plant
The orchid gets pollinated,
but the male wasp only gets
frustrated!