UNIT -2

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Introduction
to
sensors
and
transducersclassifications- Principle and working of Resistive,
capacitive, inductive and resonant transducersoptical measurement systems-encoders, photo
electric, vision sensor, Fibre optic transducers- solid
state
sensors
and
transducers-magnetic
measurements,
temperature
measurements,
Chemical
measurements-piezoelectric

accelerometers - ultrasonic sensors and transducersflow, distance, velocity measurements.

Classification of sensors
Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the
measurand and thermodynamic considerations.
These general classifications of sensors are well described in the references.
Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the
production operations as well as process monitoring activities.
Sensor technology has the following important advantages in transforming a
conventional manufacturing unit into a modern one.
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of
manufacturing system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete
manufacturing system by carrying out the preventative measures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experienced labors.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can be achieved.

 Inductive proximity switch

Optical
encoders
Detail
classification
of sensors in view of their applications in
Pneumatic sensors
manufacturing
is as follows.
Proximity switches (magnetic)

Hall effect sensors

B. Velocity and motion
Incremental encoder
Tachogenerator
Pyroelectric sensors

C. Force
Strain gauge load cell
D. Fluid pressure
Diaphragm pressure gauge
Capsules, bellows, pressure tubes
Piezoelectric sensors
Tactile sensor

E. Liquid flow
Orifice plate
Turbine meter

F. Liquid level
Floats

Active and Passive

Transducers
Active transducers :
These transducers do not need any external source of power for
their operation. Therefore they are also called as self generating
type transducers.
I.

The active transducer are self generating devices which operate

under the energy conversion principle.

II. As the output of active transducers we get an equivalent

electrical output signal e.g. temperature or strain to electric
potential, without any external source of energy being used

Passive Transducers

These transducers need external source of power for

their operation. So they are not self generating type
transducers.

A DC power supply or an audio frequency generator is

used as an external power source.

These transducers produce the output signal in the

form of variation in electrical parameter like resistance,
capacitance or inductance.

Examples Thermistor, Potentiometer type

transducer

1)Resistive Transducers - 2
a)potentiometers
b)Stain gauge
2)Capacitive Transducers
3)Inductive Transducers
a)Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
b)Rotary Variable Differential Transformer(RVDT)
c)Eddy current proximity sensors
d) Inductive proximity sensors
e) Pneumatic proximity sensors
4)Resonant Transducers - 2
a)Vibrating Wire Transducer.
b)Vibrating beam transducer.
c)Vibrating Cylinder Transducer.
5)Optical encoder - 1
a)Incremental encoder
b)Absolute encoder
6) Photoelectric

7)Vision system
9)Fibre optic transducer
8)Magnetic measurement - 2
10)Temperature Sensors
a)Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
b)Bimetallic strips
c)Thermocouple
d)Thermistors
e)Pyroelectric sensor
8)Chemical measurement
a)Humidity sensor
b)Gas detector
9)Piezoelectric sensor
10)Accelerometers
11)Ultra sonic sensors - 1
a)Flow
b)Distance
c)Velocity - 9 Hours
12) Velocity Measurements
13) Selection of sensors

potentiometers
Linear potentiometer
Rotary potentiometer

Rotary potentiometer

Stain gauge

Metal Wire
Metal foil

semiconductor

Capacitive Transducers

Capacitive Transducers

Linear Variable Differential

Transformer(LVDT)

Linear Variable Differential

Transformer(LVDT)

Rotary Variable Differential

Transformer(RVDT)

Eddy current proximity

sensors

Eddy current proximity

sensors

Resonant Transducers

1.Vibrating Wire Transducer.

2.Vibrating beam transducer.
3.Vibrating Cylinder Transducer.

Vibrating Wire Transducer

Vibrating beam transducer

Vibrating Cylinder
Transducer

Optical encoder
An encoder is a device that provides a digital output
as a result of a linear or angular displacement.

Incremental encoders,
that detect changes in rotation from
some datum position.

Optical encoder
Absolute encoder, which gives the actual
angular position

Optical encoder
Absolute encoder

Photoelectric proximity
sensors
Photosensitive device can be used to detect the
presence of an opaque object by it breaking a
beam of light, or infrared radiation, falling on such
a device or by detecting the light reflected back
by the object.

Applications
Parts counting
Conveyors
Clear glass detection
Error proofing
Gate control

vision sensor

Fiber Optic Transducer

Fiber optical Transducer operate by modulating transmitted
energy in some way

Intensity
Phase
Polarization angle
Wavelength
Spectral content and distribution

Intensity modulation
a) Shutters
b) Liquid level detector
c) Microbending
d) Reflection
e) Lateral displacement

Shutters

Liquid level detector

Microbending

Reflection

Lateral displacement

magnetic measurements

Hall effect
Magnetoresistor
Magnetodiode
Magnetotransistor

Hall Effect sensors

When a beam of charged particles passes through
a magnetic field, force act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from its straight line path.
A current flowing in a conductor is like a beam of
moving charges and thus can be deflected by a
magnetic field. This effect is called the Hall effect.

Hall Effect sensors

Hall Effect sensors

Linear

Thresh
old

Magnetoresistor

Magnetodiode

Magnetotransistor

Temperature measurements
a)Resistance Temperature Detectors
(RTD)
b)Bimetallic strips
c)Thermocouple
d)Thermistors
e)Pyroelectric sensor

Resistance Temperature Detectors

(RTD)
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are
temperature sensors that contain a resistor that
changes resistance value as its temperature
changes. They have been used for many years to
measure temperature in laboratory and industrial
processes,
and have developed a reputation for accuracy,
A wide temperature range (-50 to 500C for thin-film
repeatability,
and stability.
and -200 to 850C for wire-wound)
Good accuracy (better than thermocouples)
Good interchangeability
Long-term stability

Resistance Temperature Detectors

(RTD)

Bimetallic strips

Thermocouple
A thermocouple is a sensor for measuring temperature. It consists
of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end. When the junction
of the two metals is heated or cooled a voltage is produced that can be
correlated back to the temperature. The thermocouple alloys are
commonly available as wire.

Thermocouple

Thermocouple

Thermocouple

Cold junction compensation

Thermistors

Thermistors are small

piece of material made from
mixtures of metal oxides,
such as chromium, cobalt,
iron, manganese and nickel.
These oxides are
semiconductors

Thermistors

Chemical sensors
In sciences and in medicine - sampling of
substances such as oxygen, blood, alcohol
In the food industry for monitoring food
safety
Military has been using chemical sensors
at least since WWI to track chemical
agents used in chemical warfare
Around the home and for hobbies (CO
detection, smoke alarms, pH meters)

Classification
Direct and indirect output sensors
Direct sensor: the chemical reaction or the
presence of a chemical produces a
measured electrical output.
Example: the capacitive moisture sensor
the capacitance of a capacitor is directly
proportional to the amount of water
present between its plates.

Classification
Indirect (also called complex) sensor relies on a
secondary, indirect reading of the sensed
stimulus.
Example: optical smoke detector. An optical
sensor such as a photoresistor is illuminated by a
source and establishes a background reading.
Smoke is sampled by allowing it to flow
between the source and sensor and alter the light
intensity, its velocity, its phase or some other
measurable property.
Some chemical sensors are much more complex
than this and may involve more transduction
steps. In fact, some may be viewed as complete
instruments or processes.

Humidity sensor

Humidity sensors relying on this principle consists

of a hygroscopic dielectric material sandwiched
between a pair of electrodes forming a small
capacitor. Most capacitive sensors use a plastic or
polymer as the dielectric material, with a typical
dielectric constant ranging from 2 to 15. In
absence of moisture, the dielectric constant of
the hygroscopic dielectric material and the sensor
geometry determine the value of capacitance.

Gas detector

 an increase in the speed of the fluid

occurs simultaneously with a
decrease inpressureor a decrease in
thefluid'spotential energy

 Zinc chloride andcalcium chloride,

as well as potassium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide (and many
different salts), are so hygroscopic
that they readily dissolve in the
water they absorb

 Sensitivity-it refers to the smallest

signal that certain instrument can
measure

piezoelectric sensor
Piezoelectric materials stretched or compressed generate electric
charges with one face of the material become positively charged
and other face become negatively charged.

Piezoelectric capacitor
piezoelectricity

Accelerometer

Ultrasonic sensors and

transducers
Sources
Piezoelectric
Magnetostrictive
Mechanical

Measurement
Flow measurement
Distance measurement
Velocity measurement

Flow measurement

Doppler shift flowmeter

Transit time flowmeter
Vortex shedding flowmeter
Cross-correlation flowmeter

Doppler shift flowmeter