INTRODUCTION

Types of Forces on Materials

Stress

The internal resistance of a material to the

applied force is called Stress.
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What is a Fluid?
Any substance that is continuously deformed
when subjected to shear stress is called a
fluid.
Mechanics is the branch of physics that is
concerned with the analysis of the action of forces
on matter.
Fluid Mechanics is the analysis of action of
forces on fluids.
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Branches of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics: The analysis of action of forces
on fluids at rest e.g. Water stored in a tank
Fluid Dynamics: The analysis of action of
forces on moving fluids e.g. water flowing in
a river or a pipe flow

Characteristics of fluids
For a solid, application of a shear stress causes a deformation
which, if modest, is not permanent and solid regains original
position.

Attached
plates

Solid

Characteristics of fluids
For a fluid, continuous deformation takes place with an infinite
number of layers sliding over each other. Deformation
continues until the force is removed.

Fluid

A fluid is defined as a substance that deforms continuously

when acted upon by a shearing stress of any magnitude

Shear force on a Solid & Fluid

Solid
(Stress is proportional to
strain)

Fluid
(Stress is proportional to
strain rate)

F

A

F
V

A
h
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Newtons Law of Viscosity

Viscosity
For elastic solids shearing strain is proportional to the
shearing stress
For fluids shearing stress is proportional to the rate of
shearing strain

For Newtonian fluids shearing stress is linearly

proportional to the rate of shearing strain
The study of non-Newtonian fluids is called rheology
Viscosity is very sensitive to temperature

Example 1.5: The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide,
parallel plates is given by the equation

3V
u
2

2
y
1
h

where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.04 lbs/ft2. When V = 2 ft/s
and h = 0.2 in. determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the
shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline
(midplane)

Example 1.5: The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid between two wide,
parallel plates is given by the equation

3V
u
2

2
y
1
h

where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity of 0.0r lbs/ft2. When V = 2 ft/s
and h = 0.2 in. determine: (a) the shearing stress acting on the bottom wall, and (b) the
shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the walls and passing through the centerline
(midplane)
Solution.

du
dy

Shearing stress

Velocity distribution

du
3Vy
2
dy
h

(a) Along the bottom wall, y = -h

(b) Along the midplane, y = 0

stress
du shearing
3V

dy
h

du
0
dy

shearing stress

bot wall 14.4 lb/ft 2

midplane 0

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque due to shearing stress on plate:

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque due to shearing stress on plate:

dT r dA
where

Thus
dA 2 rdr

dT r 2 rdr
and
R

T 2 r 2 dr
0

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque due to shearing stress on plate:
R

T 2 r 2 dr
0

Velocity distribution

Searing stress

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque due to shearing stress on plate:
R

T 2 r 2 dr
0

Velocity distribution

Searing stress

du V r

dy

du
r

dy

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque due to shearing stress on plate:
R

T 2 r 2 dr
0

Searing stress

du
r

dy

Torque

2 R 3
2 R 4
T
r dr

Problem 1.65: A 12-in.-diameter circular plate is placed over a fixed bottom plate with a
0.1-in. gap between the two plates filled with glycerin.
Determine the torque required to rotate
the circular plate slowly at 2 rpm.
Assume that the velocity distribution in
the gap is linear and that the shear
stress on the edge of the rotating plate
is negligible.

Solution
Torque

lb s
rev

rad 1 min
2

0.0313
2
2

2 R 4
ft 2
min
rev 60 s

4
0.1
ft 4

12

12 ft

0.0772 ft lb

Dimensions and Units

Fluid characteristics are described qualitatively in terms of
basic dimensions: length, L, time, T, and mass, M.

All theoretically derived equations are dimensionally

homogeneous.

For a quantitative description units are required

Two system of units will be used:
International System (SI); m, s, kg, K
British Gravitational (BG) System; ft, s, lb, F or R

When solving problem use consistent system of units, dont

mix BG and SI units!

Properties and characteristics of fluids

From a microscopic point of view a fluid is not a continuous
and homogeneous substance.
We take the engineering macroscopic view such that we can
examine a sufficiently large particle of fluid to allow the
concept of velocity and density at a point.
Density is the mass per unit volume, and is a macroscopic
concept. Density at a point is:

m
lim

v 0
V
Specific volume, specific weight, specific gravity

Properties and characteristics of fluids

Pressure = (normal force) / area. The pressure at a point is:

p lim
A 0
A
In the absence of shear forces (fluid at rest or in uniform
motion) pressure at a point is independent of direction

Properties and characteristics of fluids

Perfect gas law
In this course all gases obey the perfect gas law

pV mRT

or

p RT

Properties and characteristics of fluids

Compressibility: all fluids are compressible, especially gases.
Most liquids can be regarded as incompressible for most
purposes.
The bulk modulus of elasticity, Ev , is a property which is used
to account for compressive effects:

Ev

Speed of sound is the velocity at which small disturbances

propagate in a fluid. For ideal gases speed of sound:

c kRT

Vapor Pressure
Vapor pressure is a pressure exerted by a vapour on the fluid
when they are in equilibrium in a closed vessel
Vapor pressure is a function of temperature
A liquid boils when the pressure is reduced to vapor pressure
When the liquid pressure is dropped below the vapor pressure
due to flow phenomena, we call the process cavitation
Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor
bubbles in a flowing fluid

Surface Tension
Liquid, being unable to expand freely, will form an interface with a
second liquid or gas
This surface phenomenon is due to unbalanced cohesive forces
acting on the liquid molecule on the fluid surface
The intensity of molecular attraction per unit length along any line in
the surface is called the surface tension coefficient, (N/m)
The value of surface tension decreases as temperature increases
If the interface is curved, then there is a pressure difference across
the interface, the pressure being higher on the concave side (drop of
fluid, bubble)
Capillary action in small tubes, which involves a liquid-gas solid
interface, is also caused by surface tension

Effect of capillary action in small tubes. (a) Rise of column for a liquid that wets the tube.
(b) Free-body diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of column for a
nonwetting liquid.
The height h is governed by the value of the surface tension, , tube radius, R, specific
weight of the liquid, , and the angle of contact, .

Effect of capillary action in small tubes. (a) Rise of column for a liquid that wets the tube.
(b) Free-body diagram for calculating column height. (c) Depression of column for a
nonwetting liquid.
The height h is governed by the value of the surface tension, , tube radius, R, specific
weight of the liquid, , and the angle of contact, .

R 2 h 2 R cos
h

2 cos
R

Example 1.8: Pressures are sometime determined by measuring the height of a column of
liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass tubing is required so that the rise of
water at 20C in a tube due to capillary action (as opposed to pressure in the tube) is less
than 1.0 mm?

Example 1.8: Pressures are sometime determined by measuring the height of a column of
liquid in a vertical tube. What diameter of clean glass tubing is required so that the rise of
water at 20C in a tube due to capillary action (as opposed to pressure in the tube) is less
than 1.0 mm?
Solution

2 cos
R

2 cos
h

For water at 20C (from Table B.2), = 0.0728 N/m and = 9.789 kN/m3. Since 0
it follows that for h = 1.0 mm,

9.789 10

2 0.0728 N/m 1
3

N/m

1.0 mm 10

m/mm

And the minimum required tube diameter, D, is

D 2 R 0.0298 m 29.8 mm

0.0149 m

Example: A solid cylindrical needle of diameter d, length L, and density n may float in
liquid of surface tension . Neglect buoyancy and assume a contact angle of 0. Derive a
formula for the maximum diameter dmax able to float in the liquid. Calculate dmax for a steel
needle (SG = 7.84) in water at 20C.

Example: A solid cylindrical needle of diameter d, length L, and density n may float in
liquid of surface tension . Neglect buoyancy and assume a contact angle of 0. Derive a
formula for the maximum diameter dmax able to float in the liquid. Calculate dmax for a steel
needle (SG = 7.84) in water at 20C.
Solution
For water at 20C (from Table B.2), = 0.0728 N/m and = 998.2 kg/m3.

d max

8
1.6 mm
g

END OF LECTURE

Dimensions Associated with

Common Physical Quantities

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International System (SI)

K C + 273.15

1 N 1 kg 1 m/s 2

British Gravitational (BG) System

R F + 459.67

1 lb 1 slug 1 ft/s 2
g 32.174 ft/s 2
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Density of water as a function of temperature

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(a) Deformation of material placed between two parallel plates. (b)

Forces acting on upper plate.

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Behavior of a fluid placed

between two parallel plates

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Behavior of a fluid placed

between two parallel plates

a
tan
b
a U t
U t

b
U du
& lim

t 0 t
b dy
&

du

dy

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Linear variation of shearing stress with rate

of shearing strain for common fluid
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Variation of shearing stress with rate of shearing strain for

several types of fluids, including common non-Newtonian fluids.
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Dynamic (absolute) viscosity

of some common fluids as a
function of temperature

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Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop

Pressure drop across the surface of the droplet

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Forces acting on one-half of a liquid drop

Pressure drop across the surface of the droplet

2 R p R 2
p pi pe

2
R

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